Sangam Age

Introduction And Historical Context Of Deep South India 01:03

• Previous discussions in ancient Indian history focused primarily on North India and partially on the Deccan (such as during the Satavahana period), whereas the Sangam Age marks the transition into the Far South or Deep South 01:38.

• Geographical Definition Of The Far South:

  • The triangular region bounded by the Narmada River in the north, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats forms the Deccan 14:05.

  • The region lying below the Krishna River is referred to as the Far South or Deep South 01:43.

• Chronological Recapitulation And Timeline:

  • Stone Age, followed by the Copper Age and then the Bronze Age, which corresponds to the Indus Valley Civilization 03:02.

  • Vedic Period, divided into two phases 03:22:

    • Early Vedic Period (also called the Rig Vedic Period): Characterised by a pastoral economy, Jana-based polity, tribal society and nature worship (worshipping deities such as Indra and Agni) 03:33.

    • Later Vedic Period: Marked by the discovery of iron around 1000 BC, leading to an agricultural economy, Janapada-based polity, a classified society and Brahmanical domination in religion 04:05.

  • Age Of Buddha (or the Period Of Mahajanapadas), beginning after 600 BC 04:43:

    • Janapadas converted into 16 Mahajanapadas, the economy moved into agricultural surplus and Buddhism and Jainism emerged in religion 04:48.

    • Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under three major dynasties: the Haryanka Dynasty, Shishunaga Dynasty and Nanda Dynasty 05:40.

    • During the Nanda Dynasty, Alexander reached the Beas River, returned to Babylon after his army refused to advance further and left his military commander Seleucus Nicator, who established the Seleucid Empire 05:58.

  • Mauryan Period (circa 322 BC to 182 BC):

    • Chandragupta Maurya fought against Seleucus Nicator, followed by rulers Bindusara and Ashoka 06:25.

    • After Ashoka's death, the empire split into an eastern part ruled by Dasharatha and a western part ruled by Kunala 06:51.

    • The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha Maurya, was assassinated by his military commander Pushyamitra Shunga, who established Shunga rule in the eastern portion 07:03.

  • Post-Mauryan Period (circa 182 BC to 240 AD, with some Kushan rulers continuing up to 280 AD):

    • Foreign Invasions in the west: Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians and Kushans 07:20.

    • Native Rulers in the north and Deccan: Shungas, followed by Kanvas and then the Satavahanas in the Deccan 08:23.

  • Sangam Period (circa 300 BC to 300 AD):

    • Contemporary with the Mauryas (around 300 BC during Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Ashoka) and continuing through the Post-Mauryan era (Shungas, Kanvas and Satavahanas), three major dynasties ruled simultaneously in the Far South: the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas 09:26.

Percolation Of Material Culture And Archaeological Debate 09:55

• Percolation Of Knowledge From North To South:

  • Material culture, tools, polity and knowledge (such as iron technology, discovered in North India around 1000 BC) accumulated in the North and gradually percolated southward into the Deccan and the Far South 12:08.

  • As this knowledge reached the Far South, the local dynasties (Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas) began advancing and flourishing around 300 BC 15:22.

• Recent Archaeological Contestation:

  • Recent archaeological findings from a site named Keeladi in Tamil Nadu have led the Government of Tamil Nadu to claim that iron technology existed independently in South India earlier, challenging the theory that iron knowledge percolated solely from North to South 15:48.

  • Final confirmation awaits assessment by the Archaeological Survey of India 16:12.

Geographical Distribution Of The Three Sangam Dynasties 13:16

• Cheras: Ruled on the western coast (modern-day Kerala region) 13:16.

• Pandyas: Ruled in the southernmost tip (modern-day Tamil Nadu region) 13:23.

• Cholas: Ruled on the eastern coast north of the Pandyas (modern-day Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu region) 13:30.

Sources Of Information For The Sangam Age 17:00

Non-Sangam Epigraphic And Foreign Literary Sources 17:17

• Ashokan Rock Edicts:

  • Major Rock Edict II and Major Rock Edict XIII of Emperor Ashoka mention four southern powers: the Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) 17:38.

  • Note on Satiyaputras: Historians have debated whether Satiyaputras represent the Cheras (Keralaputras) or the Satavahanas, though Sangam poems identify Athiyaman as a Velir chief corresponding to Satiyaputra 18:26.

• Greek And Roman Writers:

  • Classical writers such as Megasthenes, Pliny, Strabo and Ptolemy mention the Sangam dynasties and their trade relations 18:46.

• Hathigumpha Inscription:

  • Issued by King Kharavela of Kalinga, located near the Udayagiri Hills in Odisha, this inscription also refers to the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas 19:33.

• Limitation Of Non-Sangam Sources:

  • Ashoka's Rock Edicts, Greek writers and the Hathigumpha Inscription only mention the names of these dynasties; they do not provide detailed information about their society, polity, economy, or religion 20:30.

Sangam Literature And The Three Muchangams 20:52

• Nature And Chronology Of Sangam Literature:

  • Detailed information about the Sangam Age comes from Sangam Literature, which was composed roughly between 300 BC and 300 AD and finally compiled around 600 AD 21:16.

  • The term Sangam refers to an assembly of Tamil poets, called Muchangams in Tamil, where poets gathered to compose and standardise literature 21:47.

• Royal Patronage:

  • All three Muchangams were held under the royal patronage of the Pandyan kings 23:18.

  • While the names of the patron kings for the first two Sangams are unknown, the Third Muchangam was patronised by the Pandyan king Mudathirumaran 24:00.

Classification Of Sangam Texts 31:54

Narrative Texts (Melkanakku) 32:02

• Melkanakku comprises the major narrative texts, which narrate stories of valour and bravery (termed Puram) and love (termed Aham), glorifying the rulers who patronised the poets 32:09.

• Ettuthogai (The Eight Anthologies) 29:43:

  • Consists of eight works: Ainkurunuru, Narrinai, Agananuru, Purananuru, Kuruntogai, Paripadal, Pathitrupathu and Kalittogai 29:43.

  • Pathitrupathu is particularly important because it provides vital historical information about eight Chera kings, their territories and their fame 30:25.

• Pattuppattu (The Ten Idylls) 30:36:

  • Consists of ten long poems: Thirumurugatrupadai, Porunaratrupadai, Sirupanatrupadai, Perumpanatrupadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanchi, Kurinjippattu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam 30:36.

  • Maduraikkanchi (written by Mangudi Maruthanar) provides detailed information about the Pandyas and their capital Madurai 31:07.

  • Pattinappalai provides detailed information about the Cholas, the port of Puhar and the early life and military conquests of Karikala 31:12.

Didactic Texts (Kilkanakku) 33:51

• Kilkanakku comprises didactic texts that prescribe moral behaviour, ethics and principles of right and wrong 34:42.

• Patinenkilkanakku (The Eighteen Minor Works) 33:51:

  • Contains 18 texts, the most important of which is Thirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar 34:09.

• Post-Sangam Classification Note:

  • While Aham and Puram poems belong to the narrative tradition, works like Patinenkilkanakku and the epic Silappadikaram are often categorised under post-Sangam works as a continuation of the Sangam composition rather than Sangam works proper 01:26:11.

The Twin Tamil Epics 35:52

• Silappadikaram (written by Ilango Adigal, brother of the Chera king Cheran Senguttuvan) and Manimekalai (written by Sittalai Sattanar) are the two great epics of Tamil literature, analogous to the Ramayana and Mahabharata in North India 33:46.

• Narrative Of Silappadikaram 36:22:

  • Depicts the tragic love story of Kovalan (a merchant) and his faithful wife Kannagi, who lived in the Chola Empire 36:26.

  • Kovalan became infatuated with Madhavi, a dancer in the Chola court, left Kannagi to live with Madhavi and fathered a daughter named Manimekalai 37:27.

  • Later, Kovalan realised his mistake, left Madhavi and returned to Kannagi, who forgave him 38:23.

  • To start afresh, Kovalan and Kannagi migrated from the Chola Empire to Madurai in the Pandyan Kingdom 38:44.

  • Lacking money to start a business, Kannagi gave Kovalan her anklet (jewellery) to sell in the market 39:05.

  • Coincidentally, the queen of the Pandyan king Aryappadai Kadantha Nedunjeliyan had lost a similar anklet; Kovalan was falsely accused of theft and executed by the king 39:18.

  • Enraged by this injustice, Kannagi proved her husband's innocence before the king and cursed the ruler and the city; consequently, King Nedunjeliyan died of shock and Madurai was burned down 40:18.

  • Kannagi then travelled to the Chera Kingdom, lived an ascetic life on a hill and passed away 41:11.

  • Upon learning of Kannagi's devotion and chastity, the Chera king Cheran Senguttuvan instituted the Pattini Cult (the worship of Kannagi as the ideal chaste wife) 41:37.

• Narrative Of Manimekalai 42:46:

  • Written by Sittalai Sattanar, this epic chronicles the life and spiritual struggles of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi 42:46.

Political History Of The Sangam Dynasties 43:32

Comparative Overview Of Cheras, Cholas And Pandyas 55:21

The Cheras 44:04

• Epigraphic And Literary Sources:

  • The earliest epigraphic evidence for the Cheras is the Pugalur Inscription (1st century AD), which records three generations of Chera rulers (Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai, Perunkadungo and Ilankadungo) and mentions the ports of Muziris and Tondi 44:20.

  • Pathitrupathu (from Ettuthogai) details the territories and achievements of eight Chera rulers 56:35.

• Prominent Chera Rulers:

  • Perunchoru Uthiyan Cheralathan: One of the earliest celebrated Chera rulers 45:26.

  • Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan: A prominent Chera monarch 45:41.

  • Cheran Senguttuvan (2nd century AD):

    • Known as the Good Chera or Red Chera, he is the greatest Chera ruler 46:21.

    • He undertook a Himalayan expedition into North India, defeated northern monarchs and brought back sacred stone from the Himalayas to construct temples for the Pattini Cult (worship of Kannagi) 46:30.

• Coinage And Foreign Contacts:

  • Chera rulers issued copper and lead coins with Tamil-Brahmi legends imitating Roman coins, alongside coins bearing their bow and arrow emblem without inscriptions 56:50.

  • They maintained brisk maritime trade with the Roman Empire through Muziris and Tondi and a Temple of Augustus was built at Muziris 57:30.

The Cholas 47:36

• Territory, Capitals And Titles:

  • Ruled the fertile region between the Pennar and Vellar rivers 47:36.

  • Uraiyur served as the inland capital (famous for cotton trade), while Puhar (Kaveripattinam) served as the coastal capital and major port town 47:51.

  • Chola kings assumed royal titles such as Senni, Valavan and Killi 57:53.

• Prominent Chola Rulers:

  • Elara: Ruled from Uraiyur and conquered Sri Lanka, governing it for 50 years 48:45.

  • Karikala:

    • The greatest early Chola king, whose early life and conquests are portrayed in Pattinappalai 58:12.

    • Battle Of Venni: Karikala defeated a grand confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and nine minor chieftains (eleven rulers in total); the defeat was so humiliating that the Chera king committed ritual suicide 49:44.

    • Battle Of Vahaipparandalai: Karikala defeated nine minor chieftains and established himself as the Lord of the Tamil Region 50:19.

    • Public Works: He shifted the capital to Puhar, constructed a 160-kilometre embankment along the Kaveri River (utilising 12,000 workers brought from Sri Lanka), built the Kallanai Dam across the Kaveri and excavated numerous irrigation tanks 48:55.

The Pandyas 51:09

• Territory, Capitals And Titles:

  • Ruled from Madurai, with Korkai as their chief port; Megasthenes noted that the Pandyan kingdom was famous for pearls 51:09.

  • Maduraikkanchi (written by Mangudi Maruthanar) describes the Pandyan realm 51:22.

  • Pandyan kings assumed titles such as Thennavar and Minavar and sent embassies to Roman emperors Augustus and Trajan 01:00:01.

• Prominent Pandyan Rulers:

  • Nediyon and Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi (early rulers) 51:35.

  • Mudathirumaran: Patronised the Third Muchangam at Madurai 51:42.

  • Aryappadai Kadantha Nedunjeliyan: The ruler associated with the execution of Kovalan and Kannagi's curse in Silappadikaram 51:52.

  • Talaiyanganathu Cheruvendra Nedunjeliyan: Won the Battle of Talaiyanganam (near Tanjore) against a confederacy of five minor rulers and assumed the title Talaiyanganathu 52:11.

  • Ugra Peruvaludhi: The last famous Pandyan king of the Sangam Age 58:49.

• Decline Of The Sangam Dynasties And The Kalabhra Interregnum:

  • Around 300 AD, the rule of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras declined and subsided due to the invasion of the Kalabhras 59:03.

  • The Kalabhras ruled the region south of the Krishna River for roughly 250 years (300 AD to 550 AD), a period largely regarded as a dark age in South Indian history due to the scarcity of historical records 59:14.

Minor Chieftains (Kadaiyelu Vallalgal) 01:00:58

• Alongside the three crowned monarchs, several minor chieftains ruled subordinate territories while maintaining considerable local power 01:02:05.

• Seven prominent chieftains (Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Athiyaman) were celebrated as the Kadaiyelu Vallalgal (the Last Seven Great Patrons) for their generous patronage of Tamil poets 01:01:02.

Polity And Administration 01:02:47

Nature Of Kingship And Court Institutions 01:04:19

• Hereditary Monarchy: The form of government was generally a hereditary monarchy 01:04:19.

• Royal Court And Councils:

  • The king's imperial court was known as Avai (or Avaiyam, Urasavai and Vettavai), where court poets sang praises glorifying the monarch 01:04:29.

  • The king was advised by a council known as Aimperunkulu and assisted by a large body of officials divided into five councils 01:05:41:

    • Amaichar: Ministers 01:05:52.

    • Anthanar: Priests 01:06:02.

    • Senapati: Military commanders 01:06:02.

    • Thuthar (Dutar): Envoys 01:06:07.

    • Orrar (Urar): Spies 01:06:14.

• Practice Of Vattakirutal:

  • Vattakirutal was a martial custom in which a king defeated in battle committed ritual suicide by starving himself to death facing north 01:11:20.

Territorial Divisions And Urban Terminology 01:04:38

• Administrative Hierarchy:

  • Mandalam: The entire kingdom or major territory 01:04:38.

  • Nadu: Province 01:04:43.

  • Ur: Town 01:04:43.

  • Perur: Big village 01:04:48.

  • Sirur: Small village 01:04:48.

• Urban And Coastal Terms:

  • Pattinam: Coastal town 01:05:26.

  • Puhar: Harbour area 01:05:31.

  • Cheri: Suburb of a town 01:05:37.

Three Levels Of Rulers 01:06:39

• Kizhar: Village heads or chiefs of small territories (later known as Nadu) 01:06:58.

• Velir: Hill and forest chieftains controlling territories of varied geographical nature; notable Velir chiefs included Athiyaman (identified with Satiyaputra in Ashoka's inscriptions), Pari, Ay, Evvi and Irungo 01:07:10.

• Vendar: Crowned kings controlling large, fertile riverine territories (the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas), who adopted grand titles such as Kadungo, Imayavaramban, Vanavaramban and Peruvaluthi 01:07:32.

Military And Revenue Administration 01:12:17

• Military Administration:

  • Each ruler maintained a regular standing army and a tutelary tree known as Kadimaram 01:12:30.

  • Hero Stones (Nadukal or Virakkal) were erected in memory of warriors who displayed exceptional bravery and died in battle 01:21:29.

• Revenue Administration:

  • Land revenue was the chief source of state income, supplemented by customs duties on foreign trade and war booty 01:12:50.

  • Pattinappalai refers to customs officials employed at the seaport of Puhar 01:13:01.

  • Revenue Terms:

    • Karai: Land tax 01:13:18.

    • Ulgu: Customs duty 01:13:23.

    • Iravu: Forced gift or extra demand made by the king 01:13:23.

    • Irai: Tribute paid by feudatories 01:13:27.

    • Variyar: Tax collector 01:13:31.

Sangam Economy 01:13:40

Agriculture And Subsistence 01:13:40

• Role Of Agriculture And Tools:

  • Although agriculture was a primary occupation, early Sangam communities were also megalith builders who used large stone boulders and iron tools were still widely utilised for hunting and food gathering alongside cultivation 01:02:56.

• Major Crops:

  • Widely cultivated crops included rice (paddy), ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper and ginger 01:14:02.

  • Jackfruit and pepper were particularly famous in the Chera country, while paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya territories 01:14:14.

Handicrafts And Production Centres 01:14:30

• Major Crafts:

  • Key artisanal activities included spinning and weaving (cotton and silk), metalwork, carpentry, shipbuilding and ornament making using beads, precious stones and ivory 01:14:30.

  • Cotton produced at Uraiyur was renowned and in high demand in the Western world 01:15:17.

• Major Craft Production Centres:

  • Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaveripattinam (Puhar), Madurai, Korkai and Pattanam (in Kerala) 01:14:52.

Internal And External Trade 01:15:34

• Ports And Sources:

  • Brisk maritime trade was conducted with the Greek and Roman worlds through ports such as Puhar, Tondi, Muziris, Korkai, Arikamedu and Marakkanam 01:15:39.

  • The anonymous Greek text Periplus of the Erythraean Sea provides detailed accounts of this foreign trade, corroborated by large hoards of Roman gold and silver coins discovered across Tamil Nadu 01:15:54.

• Exports And Imports:

  • Exports: Fine cotton fabrics, pearls, ivory and spices such as pepper (known in Sanskrit texts as Yavanapriya, meaning "dear to the Greeks"), ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric 01:16:18.

  • Imports: Gold, horses and sweet wine 01:16:34.

• Mercantile Terminology:

  • Vanikan: Trader or merchant 01:16:38.

  • Chattan, Nigama and Umanar: Salt merchants 01:16:44.

  • Chattu: Mobile or itinerant merchants 01:16:54.

Sangam Society And Religion 01:17:04

Five-Fold Geographical Division Of Land (Tinai Concept) 01:17:14

• According to Tolkappiyam, the Tamil landscape was divided into five ecological zones (Tinai), each associated with a distinct presiding deity and chief occupation 01:17:20:

Social Classification (Four Castes) 01:18:39

• Tolkappiyam also refers to a four-fold social classification (Varna equivalent) 01:18:44:

  • Arasar: The ruling class 01:19:05.

  • Anthanar: Priests, associated with polity and religion 01:19:05.

  • Vanigar: Merchants engaged in trade and commerce 01:19:05.

  • Vellalar: Agriculturists and farmers 01:19:00.

Position Of Women 01:19:18

• Freedom And Cultural Participation:

  • Women in Sangam society enjoyed greater freedom and autonomy compared to many contemporary ancient civilisations and actively participated in literature, dance and music 01:19:36.

  • Notable female Tamil poets of this era included Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar 01:20:18.

• Marriage, Widowhood And Social Norms:

  • Love marriage was a common practice and women were permitted to choose their life partners 01:19:58.

  • However, the life of widows was miserable 01:20:03.

  • The practice of Sati (Tippayadal) was prevalent among the higher strata of society 01:20:35.

  • Chaste life, known as Karpu, was revered as the highest virtue of womanhood 01:20:49.

Religion 01:21:02

• Primary Deity:

  • The primary deity of the Sangam Age was Murugan (also known as Seyon), who was honoured with six abodes called Arupadai Veedu 01:21:02.

• Other Deities:

  • Other worshipped deities included Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indra), Varuna and Korravai 01:21:19.