Mauryan Empire

Historical Context And Chronological Background 03:03

• The progression of Ancient Indian History follows a sequential timeline leading up to the rise of the Mauryas:

  • Stone Age was followed by the Chalcolithic Period 03:16.

  • The Chalcolithic Age was followed by the Bronze Age, represented by the Indus Valley Civilization 03:27.

  • This was followed by the Vedic Period (1500 BC to 600 BC) 03:37.

    • The dividing line within the Vedic Period is 1000 BC, marked by the discovery of iron 03:59.

    • During the Early Vedic Period, the territorial unit was the Jana, which evolved into Janapada in the Later Vedic Period and eventually into Mahajanapadas 04:24.

  • The period of the 16 Mahajanapadas saw the emergence of heterodox sects in reaction to Vedic practices, primarily Buddhism and Jainism 04:40.

  • Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha emerged as the dominant power, built successively by three dynasties 04:55:

    • Haryanka Dynasty 05:11.

    • Shishunaga Dynasty 05:11.

    • Nanda Dynasty 05:11.

• Alexander's Invasion And The Fall Of The Nandas:

  • During the Nanda Dynasty, Alexander invaded India and reached up to the Beas River 05:16.

  • Alexander's army refused to advance further because they had already faced tough resistance in the northwest from rulers like Ambhi and especially Porus and they knew that Dhanananda possessed a formidable force including war elephants 05:22.

  • Following Alexander's retreat, Acharya Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya overthrew Dhanananda, ending Nanda rule and establishing the Mauryan Empire 05:37.

Timeline And Major Rulers Of The Mauryan Empire 05:59

• The Mauryan Empire spanned roughly from 322 BC to 180 BC (approximate dates) 06:05.

  • Around 182 BC, the eastern part of the empire ended when Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha Maurya, establishing the Shunga Dynasty 06:30.

  • The western part passed to Kunala and then to his son, before being eliminated by the Indo-Greeks around 180 BC 06:46.

• The history of the Mauryan Empire centres on three major rulers, as Ashoka's successors were weak and the empire split into two parts after his death 06:59:

  • Chandragupta Maurya: Ruled for approximately 24 years, from 322 BC to 297 BC (or 298 BC) 08:30.

  • Bindusara: Son of Chandragupta Maurya, ruled from approximately 297 BC (or 298 BC) to 272 BC 08:48.

  • Ashoka: Ascended the throne after a war of succession, ruling from 268 BC (or 269 BC) to 232 BC 09:10.

Sources Of Mauryan History 09:40

Information about the Mauryan Empire is reconstructed from two primary categories of historical sources 09:58:

Literary Sources 10:03

• Arthashastra by Kautilya:

  • A foundational treatise on statecraft and administration providing extensive details about the Mauryan period 10:40.

  • The text was lost for centuries until its manuscript on palm leaves was rediscovered in 1905 by R. Shamasastry at the Oriental Research Institute of Mysore and subsequently translated into English in 1915 02:02:46.

  • It consists of 15 books called Adhikaranas 02:03:48:

    • Books 1 to 5 (Tantra): Deal with governance and internal administration 02:04:04.

    • Books 6 to 13 (Avapa): Deal with foreign affairs and diplomacy 02:04:34.

    • Books 14 and 15: Deal with miscellaneous issues 02:04:59.

  • The 6th Adhikarana contains the Saptanga Theory of the state 02:05:06.

• Indica by Megasthenes:

  • Accounts written by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes 11:01.

  • The original work is lost, so Indica represents a compilation of references and quotations preserved in the writings of later Greek historians 11:11.

• Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta:

  • A historical play depicting how Acharya Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya conspired to overthrow Dhanananda 11:48.

  • Because it is a dramatic play rather than a direct historical chronicle, its accounts are treated by historians as one theoretical perspective rather than strictly conclusive evidence 12:06.

• Dharmashastras and Puranas: Provide normative rules and genealogical records 13:18.

• Buddhist Texts:

  • Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan chronicles) 13:36.

  • Divyavadana and Ashokavadana 13:39.

  • Vamsatthappakasini: A commentary providing details on the relationship and history of Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya 02:01:38.

• Jain Texts:

  • Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra: Establishes the connection between Chandragupta Maurya and Jainism 02:00:51.

Archaeological Sources 10:18

• Numismatics (Coins):

  • Punch-marked coins (primarily silver) 14:03.

  • Copper coins known as Kakshani (or Karshapana) 02:05:42.

• Pottery:

  • Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) 14:18.

• Architectural Remains:

  • Remains of a wooden palace belonging to Chandragupta Maurya discovered at Pataliputra 14:31.

• Inscriptions and Edicts:

  • Numerous Ashokan rock and pillar inscriptions 14:56.

  • Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman 15:12.

Origin Of Chandragupta Maurya 15:29

Historians note differing accounts regarding the social origin of Chandragupta Maurya, representing competing textual traditions rather than a single settled consensus 12:54:

• Brahmanical Texts:

  • State that Chandragupta Maurya was born of Mura, who was a slave or a low-caste woman in the court of Dhanananda 15:50.

  • An unconfirmed theory also suggests he may have been an illegitimate son of Dhanananda, though direct evidence is lacking 16:37.

• Buddhist Texts:

  • State that he was born into a Kshatriya clan known as the Moriya clan, which resided near Gorakhpur 16:55.

Chandragupta Maurya (322 BC – 298 BC) 18:19

Nature Of Kingship 18:39

• Autocratic And Centralised Rule:

  • Chandragupta Maurya was an autocrat who concentrated all political and administrative powers in his own hands 18:39.

  • Unlike the later Gupta Empire, which was decentralised, the Mauryan Empire was highly centralised 19:27.

• Relationship With Subjects And Council:

  • Texts claim that the king found his happiness in the happiness of his subjects and shared in their sorrow, though how faithfully this ideal operated in practice cannot be stated with certainty 18:49.

  • The king was assisted by a Council of Ministers, though it is uncertain how far Chandragupta felt bound to follow their advice 19:02.

• Greek Appellation:

  • In Greek accounts, Chandragupta Maurya is referred to as Sandrokottos 20:46.

Conquests And Conflict With Seleucus Nicator 21:02

• Unification Of Aryavarta:

  • After overthrowing Dhanananda, Chandragupta became the first ruler to politically conquer and unify Aryavarta (North India), though the exact military details of these northern campaigns are unknown 21:02.

• War With Seleucus Nicator (305 BC – 303 BC):

  • Seleucus Nicator was Alexander's military commander whom Alexander left in charge of the northwestern territories, including Gandhara and Kamboja (Afghanistan region) 22:48.

  • In the conflict fought between 305 BC and 303 BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nicator 23:26.

  • Outcomes Of The Treaty:

    • Peace was concluded with Chandragupta in a dominant position 23:42.

    • Chandragupta Maurya gifted 500 war elephants to Seleucus Nicator 23:52.

    • Seleucus Nicator ceded his eastern territories to Chandragupta, bringing Gandhara and parts of Afghanistan under Mauryan control 24:21.

    • Seleucus Nicator married his daughter, Helena, to Chandragupta Maurya 24:39.

Famine Relief, Jainism And Death 24:55

• Sohgaura Copper Plate Inscription:

  • Records the establishment of two granaries, termed Koshthagara, ordered by Chandragupta Maurya to store grain and manage emergency situations during a famine 24:55.

• Conversion To Jainism And Sallekhana:

  • Following widespread bloodshed during his conquests of North India, an astrologer predicted that a severe famine would strike his empire 26:36.

  • When the famine actually occurred, Chandragupta felt deep remorse and wished to repent for the violence of his expansion 27:00.

  • He adopted Jainism and migrated to Shravanabelagola in Karnataka, where he spent his final days 27:12.

  • Practicing extreme Jain penance, he undertook Sallekhana (fasting unto death) and died, after which his son Bindusara ascended the throne 27:48.

Bindusara (297 BC – 272 BC) 28:55

Naming Story And Titles 29:11

• Origin Of The Name Bindusara:

  • Acharya Chanakya practiced a strategy known as Vishaprayoga (the strategic use of poison), which also involved the use of Vishakanyas (poison maidens) against enemies 29:16.

  • To protect Chandragupta Maurya from assassination by poisoning, Chanakya secretly mixed tiny doses of slow poison into Chandragupta's daily food to build his immunity 30:03.

  • Unaware of this, Chandragupta once shared his food with his pregnant wife, who fell critically ill 30:24.

  • Chanakya intervened and extracted the unborn child from her womb to save him; because a drop (Bindu) of poison (Sara) had touched the child, he was named Bindusara 30:37.

• Titles:

  • In Greek sources, Bindusara is referred to as Amitrochates 32:55.

  • In Sanskrit sources, he is called Amitraghata (slayer of enemies) 33:07.

Foreign Relations, Conquests And Religion 33:22

• Relations With The Greeks:

  • Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with the Greeks 33:22.

  • He wrote to Antiochus I of Syria requesting three items: sweet wine, dried figs and a Sophist (Greek philosopher or intellectual) 33:37.

  • Antiochus sent the sweet wine and dried figs, but refused to send a Sophist because the sale or exchange of intellectuals was prohibited by Greek law 33:57.

• Foreign Ambassadors In Bindusara's Court:

  • Deimachus: Sent by Antiochus I of Syria (he succeeded Megasthenes as the ambassador at the Mauryan court) 35:21.

  • Dionysius: Sent by the ruler of Egypt 35:32.

• Military Conquests:

  • The Tibetan Buddhist monk Taranatha credits Bindusara with conquering the land between the two seas, referring to the peninsular region lying between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal 36:52.

• Religious Affiliation:

  • Bindusara joined the Ajivika sect, a deterministic philosophy holding that everything in life is predetermined by fate (Niyati) and cannot be altered by human effort 36:06.

Ashoka (268 BC – 232 BC) 38:26

Accession And Personal Background 38:38

• Succession:

  • According to tradition, Ashoka killed 99 of his brothers (sparing only his youngest brother) during a war of succession before ascending the throne 44:48.

• Family Details From Buddhist Texts:

  • The text Ashokavadana identifies Ashoka's mother as Subhadrangi 01:00:56.

  • According to Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, Ashoka had a love marriage with Mahadevi, who bore him two children, Mahendra and Sanghamitra, whom Ashoka later sent abroad to propagate Buddhism 02:06:34.

  • Other queens of Ashoka mentioned in sources include Padmavati, Asandhimitta, Karuvaki and Tishyarakshita 02:07:38.

The Battle Of Kalinga And Conversion To Buddhism 38:38

• Pre-Kalinga Territorial Extent:

  • When Ashoka ascended the throne, almost the entire North India (Aryavarta) was already under Mauryan control, with the sole exception of Utkala or Uttarakalinga (modern-day Odisha) 39:34.

• Reasons For Attacking Kalinga:

  • Kalinga was the only independent state left in the northern region 43:02.

  • Strategic Trade Routes: Crucial land and sea trade routes to South India passed through Kalinga, making its control vital for economic dominance 43:28.

  • Economic Resources: Kalinga possessed a large pool of skilled craftsmen 44:08.

• Aftermath And Impact:

  • Details of the Battle of Kalinga are recorded in the Dhauli Inscription (and Major Rock Edict XIII) 41:26.

  • According to the inscription, 1.5 lakh (150,000) people were taken captive as slaves and a massive number were killed 42:07.

  • Deeply moved by the immense bloodshed and human suffering, Ashoka abandoned aggressive warfare and adopted Buddhism 42:19.

  • As noted in Minor Rock Edict I, Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism was not instantaneous; it was a gradual process that took nearly 2.5 years after he came to power 01:15:26.

  • Major Rock Edict XIII records his personal transformation from being a worshipper of Shiva to embracing Buddhism 01:09:42.

Policy Of Dhamma And Royal Titles 48:32

• Shift From Bherighosha To Dhammaghosha:

  • Ashoka replaced the traditional policy of Bherighosha (physical conquest through war) with Dhammaghosha (cultural and moral conquest through righteousness), a shift explicitly recorded in Major Rock Edict IV (and also referenced alongside Major Rock Edict XIII as replacing Digvijaya with Dhammavijaya) 48:32.

• Nature Of Ashoka's Dhamma:

  • Ashoka's Dhamma was not a sectarian religious doctrine or strict Buddhist theology; rather, it was a social and moral code of conduct prescribing how people should live harmoniously in society 01:02:36.

  • Key principles of Dhamma included 01:02:57:

    • Obedience and service to mother and father 01:02:57.

    • Practice of Ahimsa (non-violence) and truthfulness 01:03:02.

    • Reverence toward teachers and courteous treatment of relatives, Brahmanas and Shramanas 01:03:02.

    • Prohibition of animal sacrifices and non-violence toward all animals 01:03:13.

    • Humane treatment of slaves (Dasas) and servants (Bhritakas) by masters and fair treatment of prisoners by government officials 01:04:00.

    • Religious tolerance toward all sects; although Ashoka adopted Buddhism, he never imposed it on his subjects (Major Rock Edicts VII and XII) 55:06.

    • Maintaining constant contact with subjects through Dhamma Yatras (tours of righteousness) to understand public welfare and grievances 01:03:24.

• Administrative Appointments For Dhamma And Justice:

  • Rajukas: Appointed to administer justice across the empire (Pillar Edict IV) 50:17.

  • Dhamma Mahamattas: Special officials appointed to propagate Dhamma and promote harmony among different sects (Major Rock Edict V and Pillar Edict VII) 50:48.

  • Ithijhika Mahamattas: Superintendents of women appointed specifically to look after the welfare of women (Major Rock Edict XII) 01:08:58.

  • Ashoka also convened the Third Buddhist Council around 250 BC 51:22.

• Royal Titles And Ideological Shift:

  • Ashoka was the first Indian ruler to speak directly to his subjects by installing inscribed rocks and pillars along major highways 45:24.

  • He adopted titles such as Devanampiya Piyadassi ("Beloved of the Gods, of pleasing appearance"), elevating the status of the king above both ordinary subjects and ministers 51:38.

  • In the Maski Inscription, his personal name appears alongside the title Devanampiya Piyadassi 47:10.

  • In the Kanganahalli Inscription, he is named Ranyo Ashoka ("King Ashoka") 46:35.

  • Buddhist texts refer to him as Chakravartin (universal monarch) and he is also given the title Buddha Shakya in minor edicts 54:04.

Ashokan Inscriptions: Languages, Scripts And Edicts 47:38

• Languages And Scripts:

  • In the central and eastern parts of India (such as the Uttar Pradesh and Bihar belt), inscriptions were composed in Prakrit (the language of the common people) and written in the Brahmi script 47:44.

  • In the northwestern frontier regions (influenced by Iranian contact), inscriptions were written in Aramaic and Greek languages, using the Kharoshthi script (as seen in Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra) 48:01.

  • The Kandahar Inscription in Afghanistan is bilingual, written in Greek and Aramaic 01:12:50.

  • The Ashokan edicts were first deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep 01:06:12.

Summary Of The 14 Major Rock Edicts 01:05:27

Summary Of Important Pillar Edicts 01:10:18

Other Notable Ashokan And Related Inscriptions 01:12:11

• Girnar Rock Inscription (Junagadh): Records the history and repair of the Sudarshana Lake (originally constructed under the Mauryas and repaired later by rulers including Rudradaman) 01:12:21.

• Rummindei Pillar Inscription (Nepal): Records Ashoka's visit to Lumbini, the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, where he worshipped and granted complete tax concessions to the villagers 01:13:07.

• Sannati Inscription (Karnataka): Site containing all 14 Major Rock Edicts along with two separate Kalinga Edicts 01:13:32.

• Allahabad-Kosam Queen's Edict:

  • Ashoka warns members of the Buddhist Sangha against causing schisms or divisions within the order 01:13:49.

  • Reflects Ashoka's support for the orthodox Sthaviravadins over the liberal Mahasanghikas 01:14:02.

  • This pillar also bears the Prayag Prashasti of Samudragupta and was later relocated to the fort at Allahabad under Jahangir 01:14:31.

• Separate Kalinga Edicts (Dhauli and Jaugada): Famous for Ashoka's paternal declaration, "All men are my children" 01:15:11.

• Minor Rock Edict III (Bhabru Edict): Ashoka greets the Sangha, professes his deep faith in the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha) and recommends six Buddhist texts for monks, nuns and lay followers 01:15:54.

• Brahmagiri Minor Rock Edict: Provides insights into local administration in the southern provinces 01:16:24.

Ashoka's Place In History And Post-Ashokan Split 56:43

• Historical Significance:

  • Completed the political unification of India (barring the extreme south) 01:16:38.

  • Established a policy of religious tolerance and social harmony 01:16:53.

  • Initiated missionary and welfare activities and promoted international cultural contacts, earning recognition as India's first global cultural ambassador 01:17:09.

  • Championed peace and non-aggression as state policy 01:17:19.

• Division Of The Empire After Ashoka's Death (232 BC):

  • Because Ashoka's successors were weak, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves 57:02:

    • Eastern Mauryan Empire: Ruled from Pataliputra by Dasharatha 57:34. Following several weak kings, the seventh ruler in this line, Brihadratha Maurya, was assassinated during a military inspection by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga around 182 BC, establishing the Shunga Dynasty (later succeeded by the Kanvas) without any popular revolt 58:15.

    • Western Mauryan Empire: Ruled from Sakala (Sialkot) by Kunala, followed by his son Samprati, until it was completely wiped out by invading Indo-Greeks around 180 BC 57:46.

Mauryan Administration 01:18:08

Kautilya's Saptanga Theory Of The State 01:36:22

In the 6th Adhikarana of the Arthashastra, Kautilya conceptualises the state as an organic entity composed of seven interrelated limbs (Saptanga Rajya) 01:37:11:

1. Swami (The King):

   • Referred to as Dharmapravartaka (promulgator of the social order) 01:38:10.

   • Held supreme authority and took final decisions on revenue, law and order and warfare, reflecting royal absolutism alongside paternalistic welfare 01:38:37.

   • Ashoka allowed ordinary citizens to meet him directly to express grievances 01:38:46.

2. Amatya (Ministers And High Officials):

   • Assisted the king in daily governance through the Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers) 01:39:01.

   • High-ranking ministers were called Mahamantrins, while Nikayas and Tirthas managed ordinary administrative and economic functions 01:39:09.

   • Four Vetting Tests (Upadhas) For Appointing Amatyas 01:40:39:

     • Dharmopadhashuddha: A religious purity test required for officials appointed to civil and criminal justice 01:40:48.

     • Arthopadhashuddha: A monetary honesty test required for officials appointed to the treasury or exchequer 01:41:18.

     • Kamopadhashuddha: A test of self-control regarding pleasure and love required for officials assigned to royal pleasure gardens 01:41:41.

     • Bhayopadhashuddha: A test of courage required for officials needed for bold and immediate executive action 01:41:47.

3. Janapada (Territory And Population): The inhabited territory and productive populace of the empire 01:37:32.

4. Durga (Fortified Capital): Fortifications and defended urban centres 01:37:37.

5. Kosha (Treasury): Financial reserves accumulated through taxation and state monopolies 01:37:48.

6. Danda Or Bala (Force And Justice):

   • Judicial Officials: Judges handling civil and criminal cases were called Dharmasthas, while Pradeshtris handled criminal suppression and revenue-related judicial matters 01:45:19.

   • Four Sources Of Law (According To Kautilya) 01:46:10:

     • Dharma: Sacred law 01:46:15.

     • Vyavahara: Secular usage or evidence 01:46:30.

     • Charitam: Customary practices 01:46:35.

     • Rajasasana: Royal proclamations or rescripts issued by the king 01:46:40.

7. Mitra (Allies And Foreign Policy):

   • Shadgunya Theory (Six-Fold Foreign Policy) 01:47:17:

     • Sandhi (Peace Treaty): Adopted when the king is weaker than the enemy 01:47:31.

     • Vigraha (Hostility or War): Adopted when the king is stronger than the enemy 01:47:37.

     • Asana (Neutrality or Staying Put): Adopted when both powers are equal 01:47:49.

     • Yana (Military Expedition): Adopted when the king is much stronger than the enemy 01:47:55.

     • Samshraya (Seeking Shelter): Adopted when the king is very weak and needs protection from another powerful ruler 01:48:00.

     • Dvaidhibhava (Dual Policy): Making peace (Sandhi) with one ruler while waging war (Vigraha) against another 01:48:14.

   • Categories Of Diplomats (Dutas) In Arthashastra 01:48:36:

     • Nisrihartha-duta: A full-fledged ambassador with plenipotentiary powers to negotiate 01:48:59.

     • Parimitartha-duta: An envoy who could not exceed specific instructions during negotiations 01:49:05.

     • Sasanahara-duta: A special royal messenger carrying specific decrees 01:49:10.

Central Council And Espionage System 01:25:41

• Inner Advisory Council:

  • The king was assisted by key figures including the Yuvaraja (Crown Prince), Purohita (Chief Priest), Senapati (Commander-in-Chief) and Mantrin (Chief Minister) 01:25:56.

• Espionage Network:

  • Security was paramount, maintained through an elaborate network of spies 01:39:41.

  • Pativedakas and Pulisani acted as special intelligence reporters who kept the king directly informed of public affairs and official conduct 01:39:51.

Provincial, District And Village Hierarchy 01:21:49

• Five Major Provinces:

  • The vast empire was divided into five major provinces 01:21:58:

    1. Northern Province (Uttarapatha): Capital at Taxila 01:23:50.

    2. Southern Province (Dakshinapatha): Capital at Suvarnagiri 01:24:11.

    3. Eastern Province: Capital at Tosali (in Kalinga) 01:24:33.

    4. Western Province: Capital at Ujjain 01:24:57.

    5. Central Province (Magadha): Capital at Pataliputra 01:25:17.

• Administrative Hierarchy (Pyramidal Structure) 01:29:12:

  • Province: Headed by a Viceroy or Governor (often a royal prince (Kumara)), who was assisted by a provincial council 01:29:53.

  • Division: Headed by a Pradeshika, who functioned without an advisory council 01:30:22.

  • District: Headed by Rajukas (derived from Rajju, meaning rope, indicating land measurement and survey duties), assisted by subordinate clerks called Yuktas 01:30:34.

  • Group Of Villages (5 to 10 Villages): Headed by a Sthanika (responsible for tax collection), assisted by Gopas (who maintained village accounts and records) 01:30:57.

  • Village (Base Unit): Headed by the Gramani 01:31:13.

• Sub-Provincial Administrative Clusters:

  • Sthaniyadrona: A cluster of 800 villages 01:27:42.

  • Dronamukha (Mukha): A cluster of 400 villages 01:28:01.

  • Kharvatika: A cluster of 200 villages 01:28:17.

  • Sangrahana: A cluster of 10 villages 01:28:31.

Municipal (City) Administration 01:31:29

• Both Megasthenes' Indica and Kautilya's Arthashastra corroborate that major cities like Pataliputra were administered by a head official called Nagarika alongside a 30-member municipal board divided into 6 committees of 5 members each 01:32:12:

  1. Committee on Industries and Crafts 01:32:49.

  2. Committee on Foreigners (monitoring their welfare, movement and burial) 01:33:00.

  3. Committee on Registration of Births and Deaths (crucial for census and taxation) 01:33:10.

  4. Committee on Trade and Commerce (regulating weights, measures and markets) 01:33:39.

  5. Committee on Manufactured Goods (supervising production and sale) 01:33:24.

  6. Committee on Collection of Sales Taxes 01:33:44.

• Regular Census:

  • Taking a census of people, livestock and other animals in every household was a regular, permanent administrative institution under the Mauryas 01:49:24.

Military Administration 01:20:22

• Size Of The Standing Army:

  • According to the Roman writer Pliny and the Greek writer Justin, the Mauryan standing army comprised 600,000 infantry (foot soldiers), 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 war elephants and 8,000 chariots 01:20:26.

• Military Organization:

  • According to Pliny (and Megasthenes), military administration was also managed by a 30-member board divided into 6 committees of 5 members each: Infantry, Cavalry, Elephants, Chariots, Navy and Transport and Support Wing 01:34:24.

  • Each wing was supervised by a superintendent (Adhyaksha) who reported directly to the Senapati 01:35:33.

Key Economic And Regulatory Officials 01:44:30

• Adhyakshas: Superintendents appointed to regulate specific state economic activities 02:04:48.

• Rupadarshaka: Inspector of coins (responsible for verifying currency standards) 01:44:36.

• Samsthadhyaksha: Superintendent of markets 01:44:46.

• Panyadhyaksha: Superintendent of trade, price fixation and sale of state-produced goods 01:44:51.

• Pautavadhyaksha: Superintendent of standardized weights and measures 01:45:04.

Mauryan Economy 01:50:47

Agricultural Expansion And Taxation 01:51:23

• Extension Of Cultivation:

  • The Mauryan state actively brought new lands under cultivation, substantially increasing agricultural output and state revenue 01:51:23.

• Land Revenue Rates:

  • Tax on agricultural produce varied according to soil fertility: one-fourth of the produce was collected from highly fertile land, while one-sixth of the produce was collected from less fertile land 01:52:16.

• Other Taxes And Modes Of Payment:

  • The state provided irrigation facilities and levied a separate water tax 01:52:45.

  • Toll taxes were collected on goods entering or moving across empire boundaries 01:52:58.

  • Taxes were collected both in cash (using punch-marked coins) and in kind (grain stored in state granaries) 02:07:26.

• Chief Revenue Officials:

  • Samaharta: The chief collector-general responsible for tax assessment 02:08:13.

  • Sannidhata: The chief custodian of the state treasury and storehouses 02:08:44.

State Monopolies And Infrastructure 01:53:24

• State Monopolies:

  • The Mauryan state exercised strict monopolies over three highly profitable sectors: mining, manufacturing of arms and the sale of liquor 01:53:24.

• Transport And Material Culture:

  • An extensive road and transport network connected major urban centres internally and across regions 02:07:06.

  • The Mauryan era saw the rapid spread of new material knowledge, including advanced iron technology, ring wells, steel-making and the art of writing 02:09:10.

  • Monumental architecture flourished through stupas, rock-cut caves and monolithic, highly polished sandstone pillars with tapering shafts 02:10:39.

Mauryan Society 02:11:34

Slavery (Dasas) 02:11:34

• Conflicting Accounts:

  • Megasthenes claimed that there was no slavery in India (likely because Indian slavery was milder than Greek chattel slavery) 02:12:14.

  • Conversely, Kautilya's Arthashastra and Ashokan inscriptions (which explicitly mention Dasas and Bhritakas) confirm that slavery existed, though Mauryan society was not a slave-based economy 02:06:20.

• Legal Protections And Rules For Slaves In Arthashastra:

  • Kautilya states that no Arya (free man with defined social status and rights) could be reduced to permanent slavery, except under specific circumstances such as capture in war or as a result of judicial punishment 02:12:41.

  • Manumission And Legitimacy: If a female slave bore her master a son, she was legally freed from enslavement and the child was entitled to the legal status of the master's legitimate child 02:15:14.

  • The Arthashastra prescribed strict rules and penalties against masters who mistreated male or female slaves 02:16:14.

Marginalised Groups And Social Omissions 02:18:03

• Untouchables:

  • Groups such as Chandalas and Shvapakas (dog breeders) were treated as untouchables 02:18:03.

  • They were also referred to as Antyavasayin, meaning those living at the extreme outskirts or end of settlements 02:18:58.

• Notable Omissions In Ashokan Inscriptions:

  • Surprisingly, Ashoka's inscriptions make no mention of the Varna system or the practice of Sati 02:19:25.

Decline Of The Mauryan Empire 02:20:41

Several interconnected factors contributed to the gradual decline and collapse of the Mauryan Empire after Ashoka 02:21:09:

1. Brahmanical Reaction:

   • Ashoka's prohibition of animal sacrifices and patronage of heterodox traditions alienated sections of the Brahmanas 02:21:09.

   • This triggered a Brahmanical resurgence led by dynasties such as the Shungas, Kanvas and Satavahanas 02:21:39.

2. Financial Crisis:

   • Maintaining a massive elaborate bureaucracy and a huge standing army imposed a heavy drain on the state treasury 02:22:14.

   • Excessive royal grants and gifts to Buddhist institutions under Ashoka further depleted financial reserves 02:22:51.

3. Oppressive Provincial Rule:

   • Corrupt and oppressive administration by provincial governors and officials alienated subjects in outlying territories 02:23:13.

4. Spread Of New Material Knowledge:

   • The diffusion of iron technology and administrative techniques from the Magadhan heartland to peripheral regions enabled emerging local powers (like the Shungas and Kanvas) to equip themselves and challenge Mauryan supremacy 02:23:22.

Previous Years' Questions (PYQs) Analysis 02:23:59

• Slavery In Kautilya's Arthashastra (UPSC 2022):

  • All three statements are correct: a person could become a slave as a result of judicial punishment; a female slave who bore her master a son became legally free; and a son fathered by the master was entitled to the legal status of the master's son 02:24:10.

• Ruler Advising Subjects Through Inscriptions:

  • Ashoka was the ruler who directly communicated policies and moral advice to his subjects through rock and pillar inscriptions 02:24:54.

• Mention Of "Ranyo Ashoka" (UPSC 2019):

  • The portrait relief bearing the inscription Ranyo Ashoka is found at Kanganahalli 02:25:10.

• First Decipherer Of Ashokan Edicts (UPSC 2016):

  • James Prinsep first deciphered the Ashokan edicts in 1837 02:25:21.

• Annexation Of Kalinga (Assertion And Reason):

  • Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation: Ashoka annexed Kalinga because Kalinga controlled crucial land and sea trade routes to South India 02:25:34.

• Earliest Royal Order For Famine Grain Preservation (UPSC 1998):

  • The Sohgaura Copper Plate Inscription is the earliest royal order recording the establishment of granaries (Koshthagara) to preserve food grains for crisis and famine relief 02:25:51.

• Social Harmony Over Religious Devotion In Ashokan Edicts:

  • Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason explains Assertion: Ashoka prioritized social harmony among subjects over sectarian religious devotion and promoted equity rather than sectarian conversion 02:26:12.

• Major Rock Edicts Mentioning Sangam Kingdoms:

  • Major Rock Edicts II and XIII mention the southern Sangam kingdoms 02:26:29.

• Features Of Ashokan Stone Pillars (UPSC 1997):

  • Ashokan pillars are highly polished, monolithic and have tapering shafts, but they were free-standing monuments rather than parts of architectural structures 02:27:23.

• Inscription Mentioning Personal Name Of Ashoka:

  • The Maski Inscription explicitly mentions the personal name Ashoka 02:27:47.

• General Title Used By Ashoka In His Inscriptions:

  • Ashoka is generally referred to in his inscriptions as Priyadarsi (Devanampiya Piyadassi) 02:27:58.