Introduction And Prehistory

Relevance Of Ancient History In UPSC Examination 03:54

• Over the past five years, the number of questions asked from Ancient History in the UPSC Prelims examination shows its growing importance:

  • 2021: 4 questions.

  • 2022: 2 questions (a temporary dip).

  • 2023: 9 questions.

  • 2024: 5 questions.

  • 2025: 8 questions.

• Because a substantial number of questions are asked, factual details in Ancient History must be memorised carefully alongside conceptual clarity.

Complete Timeline Of Ancient Indian History 05:49

• Stone Age 05:55:

  • Ancient History begins with the Stone Age, where human life is understood primarily through stone tools.

• Chalcolithic Age 06:19:

  • Derived from Chalco meaning copper and Lithic meaning stone.

  • Copper was the first metal known to humans.

  • Humans upgraded from using purely stone tools to using tools made of copper and stone.

• Bronze Age (Indus Valley Civilisation) 07:01:

  • Corresponds to the Indus Valley Civilisation or Harappan Civilisation, where people learned the technique of making bronze (by alloying copper and tin).

• Vedic Period (1500 BC to 600 BC) 07:30:

  • Known as the Vedic Period because information about this era comes primarily through the Vedas.

  • Divided into two phases separated by the dividing line of 1000 BC:

    • Early Vedic Period: 1500 BC to 1000 BC.

    • Later Vedic Period: 1000 BC to 600 BC.

  • Significance of 1000 BC:

    • Iron was discovered around 1000 BC, transforming human society and economy.

    • Before iron, humans could not easily clear the dense forests of the fertile, high-rainfall regions of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. With iron tools, forest clearance and agricultural expansion became possible.

• Buddha Period And Mahajanapada Period 09:57:

  • Also covers Jainism alongside Buddhism.

  • Characterised by the existence of 16 Mahajanapadas (such as Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja, Matsya and Surasena).

  • Out of the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha emerged victorious and dominant due to the rule of successive dynasties:

    • Haryanka Dynasty.

    • Shishunaga Dynasty.

    • Nanda Dynasty (during the reign of Dhanananda, Alexander reached up to the Beas River in India; Acharya Chanakya strategised to overthrow Dhanananda and establish Chandragupta Maurya).

• Mauryan Period 12:38:

  • Covers major rulers: Chandragupta Maurya, his son Bindusara and Ashoka, along with Mauryan economy, society, administration and military system.

• Post-Mauryan Period 13:47:

  • Following the decline of the Mauryan Empire, the subcontinent fragmented into smaller polities and experienced foreign invasions in the northwest.

  • Native Rulers:

    • Shungas.

    • Kanvas.

    • Satavahanas.

  • Foreign Rulers (Invaders):

    • Indo-Greeks.

    • Scythians (Shakas).

    • Parthians.

    • Kushanas.

• Sangam Period (Deep South) 15:20:

  • Developed in South India parallel to the Post-Mauryan period.

  • Ruled by three major dynasties: Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas.

• Gupta Period 15:52:

  • Founded by Sri Gupta in 240 AD, followed by Ghatotkacha in 280 AD (during both reigns there was little territorial expansion).

  • Major imperial expansion began under Chandragupta I, followed by Samudragupta and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

• Post-Gupta Period 16:19:

  • North India: Ruled by the Pushyabhuti Dynasty (notably Harshavardhana).

  • South India: Marked by conflicts between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas.

Foundations Of Historical Study 18:16

Three-Fold Division Of History 18:32

Chronological Conventions: BC, AD, BCE And CE 22:28

• BC (Before Christ) 22:52:

  • Refers to the time period before the birth of Jesus Christ.

  • Years count backwards from the birth of Jesus Christ (for example, 1500 BC is 1,500 years before the birth of Christ, which is roughly 3,525 years before 2025 AD).

• AD (Anno Domini) 23:50:

  • Means “In the era of Christ” (or in the year of the Lord), referring to the period after the birth of Jesus Christ.

  • Years count forward (for example, 100 AD, 200 AD, up to 2025 AD).

• Secular Nomenclature: BCE And CE 26:19:

  • Because BC and AD rely on a religious reference point (Jesus Christ), secular equivalents were introduced:

    • BCE (Before Common Era): Replaces BC.

    • CE (Common Era): Replaces AD.

Human Evolution And Migration Into India 27:17

• Humans first originated in the dense equatorial forests of Africa, living on trees much like apes, before gradually evolving and migrating outward:

  • Australopithecus (5.5 million years ago to 1.8 million years ago) 28:12:

    • Represents the earliest human-like form.

    • Walked bent forward using both hands and legs.

    • Driven by the search for food and safety from predators, they moved out of dense forests into the African grasslands.

    • In tall grasses, standing upright improved visibility, leading them to gradually practise bipedalism (walking on two legs), which freed their hands to throw stones for defence and hunt.

  • Homo habilis (1.8 million years ago to 1.5 million years ago) 31:02:

    • Evolved to walk more upright than Australopithecus.

    • Known for initiating the use of stone tools (throwing and using stones against animals).

  • Homo erectus (1.8 million years ago to 1 lakh years ago) 31:27:

    • Fully upright posture with advanced skills in food hunting.

    • Known for migration out of Africa in search of food and resources, reaching various parts of the world including India.

  • Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) (around 2.5 lakh years ago) 33:06:

    • Migrated northward and settled primarily in the region of Europe.

  • Homo sapiens (around 1 lakh to 1.5 lakh years ago) 33:24:

    • Represent modern humans.

    • Appeared in India during the Upper Palaeolithic phase (evolving from earlier Homo erectus populations and influences from migrating groups).

Geological Time Scale And Early Humans 38:08

• The Earth is approximately 4,000 million years old 38:13.

• The evolution of the Earth's crust occurred in four stages 38:46, with the fourth stage being the Quaternary Period 39:06, divided into two epochs:

  • Pleistocene Epoch (20 lakh years ago (2 million years ago) to 10,000 BC) 39:18:

    • Characterised by interglaciation and colder climatic conditions (Ice Age), with most of the Earth covered in ice.

    • Early humans (such as Australopithecus and early Homo species) appeared during this epoch. (Recent studies suggest early human emergence may date back to around 3 million years ago.)

    • Inhabited by mammoth animals (giant prehistoric fauna), including true elephants, true horses and true oxen.

  • Holocene Epoch (10,000 BC to Present) 39:26:

    • Characterised by warmer climatic conditions following the end of the Ice Age, continuing up to the present day.

The Stone Age 44:27

• Because fossil remains of early humans are rare in India, human history during this era is reconstructed primarily from excavated stone tools, giving the period the name Stone Age 43:55.

• Divided into three phases 44:38:

  • Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age): 5,00,000 BC to 10,000 BC (Palaeo = old, Lithic = stone).

  • Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age): 10,000 BC to 4,000 BC (approximate; dates vary between 6,000 BC and 4,000 BC across regions; Meso = middle).

  • Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): 9,000 BC to 1,000 BC globally and 7,000 BC to 1,000 BC in the Indian subcontinent (Neo = new).

Palaeolithic Age (5,00,000 BC To 10,000 BC) 53:57

• Corresponds to the final quarter of the Pleistocene Epoch (the last phase of the Ice Age) 46:51.

• General Distribution Of Sites 57:54:

  • Palaeolithic sites are predominantly found on hilly slopes and in river valleys.

  • There is an absence of Palaeolithic sites in the alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganga rivers (due to dense forests and lack of stone raw materials).

• Divided into three sub-phases 48:14:

  • Lower Palaeolithic Age: 5,00,000 BC to 50,000 BC.

  • Middle Palaeolithic Age: 50,000 BC to 40,000 BC.

  • Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC to 10,000 BC.

Comparative Overview Of Palaeolithic Sub-Phases 56:21

Key Insights On The Palaeolithic Age 01:04:27

• Why Humans Settled At Bhimbetka 01:04:27:

  • Surrounded by forests (for food) and water availability.

  • The caves were composed of sandstone and quartzite, providing abundant raw material right at their shelter to manufacture stone tools.

• Discovery Of The First Palaeolithic Tool In India 01:18:14:

  • The hand axe was perhaps the first stone tool discovered in India, found by Robert Bruce Foote at Pallavaram (near Chennai).

• Discovery Of Fire 01:22:14:

  • While some texts place fire discovery in the Mesolithic, logical archaeological context places the discovery of fire during the cold Palaeolithic Ice Age, as early humans needed warmth and protection from wild animals.

• Upper Palaeolithic Developments 52:07:

  • Homo sapiens (modern humans) appeared in India during this phase.

  • Fragmented ostrich eggshells have been discovered from Upper Palaeolithic sites, which were likely used as bowls or to manufacture beads and ornaments 52:32.

Mesolithic Age (10,000 BC To 4,000 BC) 01:19:47

• Represents a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages 01:19:53.

Climatic Conditions 01:20:31

• Marks the beginning of the Holocene Epoch, bringing warmer climatic conditions and the end of the Ice Age 01:20:31.

• Causal Chain Of Environmental Change 01:20:51:

  • Rising temperatures caused glaciers and ice sheets to melt.

  • Melting ice led to the formation of new streams and rivers.

  • Newly formed plains and river valleys transformed the flora and fauna: dense ice gave way to grasslands and giant slow-moving mammoth animals were replaced by fast-running animals (such as deer).

  • Consequently, humans moved out of isolated hill caves toward new settlements along riverbanks.

• Non-Uniform Climate Change 01:23:15:

  • Climatic shifts were not uniform across the subcontinent:

    • Birbhanpur (West Bengal) experienced increased aridity.

    • Didwana (Rajasthan) experienced heavy rainfall.

    • Madhya Pradesh developed warm and wet climatic conditions.

Mesolithic Settlements And Key Findings 01:24:13

• Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) and Bagor (Rajasthan, on the Kothari River) 01:24:30:

  • Yielded the earliest evidence of animal domestication in India.

• Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh) 01:25:42:

  • Uniquely preserves all three Stone Age phases (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic) in a continuous stratigraphic sequence.

  • Provides early evidence of plant cultivation (resulting from humans observing seasonal fruiting and growth patterns) alongside animal domestication.

• Damdama and Mahadaha (Uttar Pradesh) 01:28:24:

  • Known for human burials.

• Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh) and Langhnaj (Gujarat) 01:28:52:

  • Exception to the general rule: While pottery is absent in most Mesolithic sites, Langhnaj and Mirzapur have yielded early evidence of pottery.

• Loteshwar and Ratanpur (Gujarat) 01:29:04:

  • Provide evidence of cattle domestication.

• Other Notable Mesolithic Sites 01:31:25:

  • Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh).

  • Birbhanpur (West Bengal).

  • Tinnevelly (Tirunelveli) (Tamil Nadu).

  • Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).

  • Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh).

Occupation And Tools 01:32:39

• Occupation 01:32:49:

  • Continued hunting and food gathering.

  • Fishing emerged as a major new occupation due to newly formed rivers and streams.

  • Practised animal domestication and early animal husbandry.

• Tools 01:33:54:

  • Older Palaeolithic tools continued to be used alongside a major technological innovation: microliths (tiny stone tools).

  • Microliths:

    • Size ranged from 1 cm to 5 cm.

    • Made of quartzite, chert, jasper and agate.

    • Shaped into both geometrical and non-geometrical forms.

    • Designed specifically to hunt fast-running animals in open plains.

  • Introduction of the Bow and Arrow 01:35:39:

    • Invented during the Mesolithic period, greatly increasing hunting efficiency against swift prey.

Neolithic Age (Beginning In 9,000 BC Globally And In 7,000 BC In India, Ending In 1,000 BC) 01:42:02

• Overlap With Mesolithic 01:38:07:

  • Neolithic settlements began emerging around 9,000 BC globally and 7,000 BC in the Indian subcontinent (Mehrgarh), overlapping chronologically with the Mesolithic phase (which lasted until 4,000 BC) before replacing it.

• The Neolithic Revolution 01:42:14:

  • Archaeologist V. Gordon Childe termed this phase the Neolithic Revolution because of transformative changes in human subsistence, settlement and technology.

Occupation, Subsistence And Material Culture 01:42:57

• Climatic Conditions 01:43:03:

  • Fully established Holocene Epoch (warm conditions identical to the present day).

• Occupation And Agriculture 01:43:20:

  • Continued hunting, food gathering and fishing.

  • Full-fledged agriculture and plant domestication began.

  • Major Crops Cultivated 01:48:40:

    • Ragi, horse gram, rice, wheat and barley.

  • Farming Technology 01:47:56:

    • Humans had no knowledge of the plough.

    • Farming was performed using stone celts (polished stone tools used like hoes or digging implements).

  • Animal Domestication 01:44:08:

    • Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats and dogs.

• Sedentary Life And Architecture 01:44:32:

  • Agriculture necessitated a settled life, leading to the construction of permanent houses and granaries (for storing harvested grains).

  • Houses were built of mud and mud bricks in rectangular and circular shapes.

• Pottery 01:46:19:

  • Developed to store grains and cook or eat food.

  • Included both handmade pottery and wheel-made pottery (using the potter's wheel).

  • Types of Neolithic Pottery:

    • Black-burnished ware.

    • Grey ware.

    • Mat-impressed ware.

  • Early evidence of Neolithic pottery in the subcontinent comes from Mehrgarh.

• Tools 01:49:06:

  • Polished stone axes.

  • Bone tools.

  • Microlith blades (continued from the Mesolithic).

Regional Classification Of Neolithic Settlements 01:51:10

• Based on the shape and typology of stone axes, Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent are divided into three main regional groups:

Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age) 02:04:56

• Meaning And Nature Of The Phase 02:05:02:

  • Derived from Chalco (copper) and Lithic (stone).

  • Copper was the first metal known to humans 02:06:10.

  • Represents a technologically upgraded phase over the Neolithic because humans learned metallurgy and used both copper and stone tools.

  • However, it did not bring a drastic revolution in daily life because copper is a soft metal and lacked the strength required to clear dense forests or transform agriculture (a transformation that only occurred later with iron at 1000 BC) 02:06:26.

  • Chalcolithic societies remained rural farming communities 02:45:12.

• Chronological Overlap With Other Cultures 02:07:30:

  • Chalcolithic cultures flourished alongside late Neolithic settlements (up to 1000 BC) and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation (3300 BC to 1700 BC).

  • Interaction with Harappans: The Harappans imported copper from Chalcolithic regions like the Khetri mines (Ganeshwar culture) in Rajasthan and tin from Afghanistan to manufacture bronze 02:15:41.

  • Post-Harappan Transition: When the urban Indus Valley Civilisation (First Urbanisation) declined around 1700 BC, many Harappan settlements devolved back into rural Chalcolithic communities 02:20:08.

Major Regional Chalcolithic Cultures 02:10:38

Ahar-Banas Culture (c. 2100 BC – 1500 BC or 2600 BC – 1900 BC) 02:10:53

• Location 02:24:53:

  • Situated along the banks of the Ahar River in Rajasthan (around Udaipur and Gilund).

• Key Sites And Findings 02:25:15:

  • Ahar:

    • Historically known as Tambavati (literally "place possessing copper") due to abundant copper availability.

    • Exception in Architecture: Unlike most Chalcolithic sites that used mud bricks, Ahar had stone-built houses.

    • People practised copper smelting and metallurgy from the very beginning.

    • Yielded beads of semi-precious stones, including lapis lazuli.

  • Gilund:

    • Had a stone-blade industry, microliths, copper fragments and semi-precious stone beads.

    • Exception in Brick Usage: While burnt bricks were generally unknown to Chalcolithic people, a wall made of burnt bricks was discovered at Gilund.

  • Ganeshwar:

    • Associated with the Khetri copper mines; supplied copper artefacts and raw copper to the Indus Valley Civilisation.

  • Balathal:

    • Known for mud fortification.

• Pottery 02:27:14:

  • Characterised by Black-and-Red Ware, painted with linear and dotted designs in white pigment.

  • Shapes included bowls, bowls-on-stands, elongated vases and globular vases, alongside brightly slipped red ware, tan ware and burnished black ceramics.

Kayatha Culture (c. 2000 BC – 1800 BC or 2100 BC – 1800 BC) 02:11:21

• Location 02:28:34:

  • Named after the type-site Kayatha (in Ujjain district, Madhya Pradesh) along the Chambal River basin.

  • Preceded the Malwa culture; out of over 40 sites, Kayatha and Dangwada have been excavated.

• Key Findings 02:29:20:

  • Kayatha and Eran were fortified settlements.

  • Yielded microliths, copper axes, bangles, necklaces and beads.

  • No grain remains have been recovered from this culture.

  • No plough or hoe was found; cultivation relied on digging sticks.

  • Kayatha Ware pottery shows similarities to Early Harappan pottery.

Malwa Culture (c. 1700 BC – 1200 BC or 1800 BC – 1200 BC) 02:11:51

• Location And Chronology 02:31:08:

  • Located in western Madhya Pradesh and parts of Maharashtra.

  • Preceded by the Kayatha, Ahar-Banas and Savalda cultures and succeeded by the Jorwe culture.

• Major Sites 02:31:23:

  • Navdatoli (largest settlement of the Malwa culture, in western Madhya Pradesh), Daimabad, Inamgaon, Kayatha, Nagda, Vidisha, Eran and Mandsaur.

• Key Findings At Navdatoli 02:32:21:

  • Yielded cultivated cereals, fire altars, pit storage and human figurines including a Proto-Rudra figure.

• Pottery 02:31:54:

  • Red or orange pottery painted in black with geometric, floral, animal and human designs.

Jorwe Culture (c. 1400 BC – 700 BC) 02:12:08

• Location And Environment 02:33:13:

  • Named after the village of Jorwe on the banks of the Godavari River in Maharashtra.

  • Spread across semi-arid black cotton soil regions of Maharashtra, characterised by natural vegetation of babul and ber.

  • Cultivated crops included barley, wheat and lentils.

• Major Sites And Findings 02:33:56:

  • Daimabad (fortified site):

    • Largest Chalcolithic settlement in India.

    • Shows strong Indus Valley Civilisation influence.

    • Famous for heavy bronze objects and sculptures: a rhinoceros, a buffalo and an elephant (along with a chariot).

  • Inamgaon (fortified site):

    • Over 100 houses excavated, demonstrating settlement planning (including a large house with one circular room surrounded by five rectangular rooms).

    • Evidence of circular pit houses, chulhas (hearths), crop rotation and artificial irrigation.

    • Yielded a Mother Goddess figurine.

  • Walki:

    • Yielded an ard (a primitive plough-like implement) and a seed drill made of antler.

• Pottery 02:35:08:

  • Red pottery with a matte surface bearing paintings in black.

Eastern Indian Chalcolithic Sites 02:38:50

• Chirand (Bihar).

• Sohgaura (Uttar Pradesh).

• Pandu Rajar Dhibi (West Bengal).

• Mahishdal (West Bengal).

General Characteristics Of Chalcolithic Culture 02:44:56

Tools And Metallurgy 02:44:56

• Copper Tools: Chisels, harpoons and flat axes.

• Stone Tools: Stone blades and stone axes.

Housing And Construction 02:53:37

• People were generally not acquainted with burnt bricks (with the rare exception of a burnt-brick wall at Gilund) and instead used mud bricks and sun-dried bricks.

• Houses were circular or rectangular, mostly single-roomed huts built closely together using wattle-and-daub (wooden frames plastered with mud and straw).

• Stone-built houses occurred exceptionally at Ahar.

Economy, Agriculture And Domestication 02:47:51

• Agriculture:

  • Practised without a plough or hoe, relying on digging sticks (and primitive antler seed drills or ards at Walki).

  • Staple crops: Wheat, rice and bajra, alongside barley, lentils, black gram, green gram and grass pea.

  • Cotton production was also practised (cotton threads found in Maharashtra).

• Domestication And Livestock:

  • Domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pigs, buffaloes and donkeys and hunted deer.

  • Possessed knowledge of camels and some limited knowledge of horses (though horse domestication was not established).

• Trade:

  • Conducted through the barter system; surplus craft and agricultural goods were exchanged for luxury items.

Arts, Crafts And Pottery 02:49:23

• Crafts:

  • Coppersmithing, ivory making, lime making, terracotta figurine making and spinning and weaving of cotton and silk.

• Ornaments:

  • Manufactured beads, bangles and necklaces from copper, quartzite, carnelian and steatite.

• Pottery 02:46:50:

  • Black-and-Red Ware: Most widespread; shapes included dish-on-stand and channel-spouted pots.

  • Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) 02:56:00:

    • Reddish-brown, under-fired, red-slipped ware with an ochre wash, representing a degenerated form of Harappan pottery.

    • Made on a potter's wheel and painted with white lines.

    • Major OCP sites: Ahichchhatra and Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh).

Burial Practices 02:50:48

• Four Types Of Burials:

  • Symbolic Burial: A grave constructed without a dead body inside.

  • Extended Burial (Primary Burial): The dead body laid out straight in the grave.

  • Fragmented Burial (Secondary Burial): Only selected bones of the deceased were buried after excarnation.

  • Urn Burial: Ashes or skeletal remains placed inside a pottery urn and buried.

• Regional Orientation:

  • In South India, Chalcolithic burials followed an East-West orientation.

Previous Year UPSC Prelims Questions Discussed 02:40:02

UPSC Prelims 2021 Question On Historical Sites 02:40:12

• Pairs Tested:

  1. Burzahom : Rock-cut shrines. Incorrect. Burzahom (Kashmir) is a Neolithic site famous for pit dwellings and dog burials, not rock-cut shrines.

  2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art. Correct. Located in West Bengal, Chandraketugarh is famous for its intricate terracotta plaques and art.

  3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts. Correct. Located near the Khetri mines in Rajasthan, Ganeshwar is a Chalcolithic site known for copper artefacts.

• Correct Answer: 2 and 3 only.

UPSC Prelims 2024 Question On Archaeological Sites 02:41:03

• Pairs Tested:

  1. Chandraketugarh (Odisha): Trading Port town. Incorrect. Chandraketugarh is located in West Bengal (an ancient urban centre of Gangaridai), not Odisha.

  2. Inamgaon (Maharashtra): Chalcolithic site. Correct. Inamgaon is a major fortified settlement of the Jorwe Chalcolithic culture in Maharashtra.

  3. Mangadu (Kerala): Megalithic site. Correct. Mangadu in Kerala is a Megalithic site where 28 laterite blocks spread over five cents of land were excavated.

  4. Salihundam (Andhra Pradesh): Rock-cut cave shrines. Incorrect. While Salihundam is an ancient Buddhist site in Andhra Pradesh (which flourished under the Satavahanas, Ikshvakus and Eastern Gangas), rock-cut cave shrines are not found there.

• Correct Answer: 2 and 3 only.