Mahajanapadas, Rise Of Magadha And Persian And Greek Invasions

Historical Timeline And Transition To The Mahajanapada Period 03:00

Sequence Of Early Indian Historical Periods 03:12

• Stone Age was followed by the Chalcolithic Age.

• Bronze Age followed, represented by the Indus Valley Civilization.

• Iron Age began with the Vedic Period 03:31.

  • Rig Vedic Period or Early Vedic Period lasted from 1500 BCE to 1000 BCE.

  • Later Vedic Period lasted from 1000 BCE to 600 BCE.

  • 1000 BCE acted as the dividing line between the Early and Later Vedic Periods because iron was discovered around this time.

• Mahajanapada Period lasted from 600 BCE to 300 BCE 01:33 04:27.

  • This era is also referred to as the Buddha Period 04:40, during which Buddhism and Jainism emerged.

Structural Evolution From The Vedic Period To 600 BCE And Beyond 05:38

• Transition In Economy 06:32:

  • The discovery of iron in 1000 BCE enabled the making of iron axes and ploughs.

  • Dense forests in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were cleared to create open plains, establishing agriculture as the primary economic activity by 600 BCE.

  • From the 6th century BCE onwards, the widespread use of iron began, as technological adoption spread gradually rather than instantaneously after 1000 BCE 11:14.

  • Improved agricultural output meant production exceeded consumption, generating an economic surplus 12:22.

  • This surplus fulfilled military needs for soldiers, administrative requirements and the needs of emerging towns 12:54.

  • The Mahajanapada period marks the Second Phase of Urbanisation in Indian history, following the First Phase of Urbanisation during the Indus Valley Civilization 10:31.

• Transition In Polity 06:57:

  • Under the Janapada system, tribes settled in defined territories, such as Kuru becoming Kurukshetra, Videha (meaning without body) and Panchala (territory where five tribes lived).

  • The hierarchical formation of political units progressed from bottom to top 15:28:

    • Kula: A single family.

    • Grama: A village formed by multiple families.

    • Vishu (or Vish): A group of villages.

    • Jana: A tribal unit above the Vishu.

    • Janapada: Territory settled by tribes.

    • Mahajanapada: A larger territorial state formed when multiple Janapadas merged together, eventually resulting in 16 Mahajanapadas 14:03.

  • Material advantages from iron and agricultural surplus allowed people to settle permanently and expand into neighbouring territories 16:35.

• Transition In Religion 09:19:

  • In the Later Vedic Period, Brahmanas held dominance because only they possessed Vedic knowledge to conduct ceremonies and sacrifices 07:56.

  • Dissatisfaction grew against Brahmanical domination among:

    • Kshatriyas, who risked their lives in battle yet did not receive the privileges reserved for Brahmanas.

    • Vaishyas and Shudras, who also sought religious paths favourable to their status.

  • Around 62 sects emerged during this era, among which Buddhism and Jainism became the most prominent 09:48.

The Sixteen Mahajanapadas 17:24

Literary Sources Mentioning The Mahajanapadas 18:02

• Buddhist Texts:

  • Anguttara Nikaya mentions the 16 Mahajanapadas, specifically noting Gandhara and Kamboja 18:23.

  • Mahavastu also lists the Mahajanapadas 18:52.

• Jaina Texts:

  • Bhagavati Sutra provides an account of the 16 Mahajanapadas 19:10.

• Foreign Accounts and grammatical works such as Panini's Ashtadhyayi also provide information about this era 17:48 19:25.

List Of The Sixteen Mahajanapadas, Capitals, Rivers And Locations 20:06

• Most Mahajanapadas were concentrated in the Uttar Pradesh and Bihar belt, reflecting migration eastward from the Indus region (1500 BCE to 1000 BCE) into the Gangetic plains (1000 BCE to 600 BCE) and further consolidation (600 BCE to 300 BCE) 26:55.

Rise Of Magadha 30:20

Struggle For Supremacy Among The Mahajanapadas 32:16

• Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, four emerged as the primary contenders for supremacy: Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti 32:38.

  • This struggle resembled the later European struggle in India among the Portuguese, British, Dutch and French, where matrimonial alliances eliminated the Portuguese, commercial agreements over the Spice Islands sidelined the Dutch and the British and French fought the Anglo-French rivalry 30:40.

• Kosala was neutralised through a matrimonial alliance with Magadha 33:14.

• Vatsa was defeated and eliminated by Avanti 33:25.

• Magadha and Avanti remained as the final two rivals and fought a 100-year rivalry 33:40.

  • Avanti was the only Mahajanapada capable of challenging Magadha because Avanti also had access to iron reserves, enabling it to manufacture iron tools and weapons comparable to Magadha's 33:58.

  • Relations between Magadha and Avanti alternated between hostility and diplomacy: when King Chanda Pradyota of Avanti's Pradyota dynasty fell ill, Magadha sent its royal physician Jivaka to treat him 34:29.

Reasons Why Magadha Emerged Victorious 35:26

• Strategic Geographical Location 36:48:

  • Magadha's capital, Rajagriha, was surrounded by hills on all sides and bordered by rivers, making it an impregnable capital that was extremely difficult for enemies to breach.

• Proximity To Iron Reserves 37:46:

  • Close access to rich iron deposits allowed Magadha to produce superior iron tools and military weapons on a large scale, giving it a decisive edge over other Mahajanapadas.

• High Soil Fertility 38:01:

  • Located in the fertile Gangetic plain, Magadha achieved high agricultural yields, generating strong economic wealth and state revenue to sustain large armies and administration.

Dynasties Of Magadha 38:34

• Before the major expansion, Magadha was ruled by the Brihadratha Dynasty, under which no territorial expansion occurred 39:15.

• Three subsequent dynasties transformed Magadha into a dominant empire: the Haryanka Dynasty, the Shishunaga Dynasty and the Nanda Dynasty 38:48.

The Haryanka Dynasty 42:11

• Bimbisara (544 BCE to 492 BCE) 43:15:

  • Contemporary of Gautama Buddha 44:10.

  • Strengthened Magadha through three matrimonial alliances 44:22:

    • Married Kosaladevi, princess of Kosala, which secured peaceful relations with Kosala and brought Kashi as dowry.

    • Married Chellana, a Lichchhavi princess of Vaishali, who later gave birth to his son Ajatashatru 45:10.

    • Married the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan 46:11.

  • Built the city of Rajgir (Rajagriha) 46:35.

  • Established a regular standing army always ready for warfare 46:48.

  • Was killed by his ambitious son Ajatashatru, who seized the throne 47:07.

• Ajatashatru (492 BCE to 460 BCE) 47:36:

  • Pursued an aggressive expansionist policy 48:04.

  • His aggression alienated Kosala and Kashi, which rose in rebellion against Magadha, undoing the diplomatic gains made by Bimbisara 48:36.

  • Showed no respect for family relations 49:22:

    • Because Kosala was an ally of the Lichchhavis (Ajatashatru's maternal relatives through his mother Chellana), Ajatashatru attacked the Lichchhavis as well.

    • He destroyed Vaishali (the Lichchhavi capital), though the campaign took him 16 years to complete 50:28.

  • Fortified Rajagriha due to the fear of a potential invasion by Avanti 51:19.

  • Military Innovations that ensured his victories 52:19:

    • War engines (catapult-like wooden siege machines capable of hurling large stones over long distances).

    • Mace-attached chariots (chariots fitted with sharp rotating blades in front of the horses to cut down opposing soldiers).

• Udayin (460 BCE to 444 BCE) 54:10:

  • Built a fort at Pataliputra, located at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers.

  • Shifted the capital of Magadha from Rajgir to Pataliputra 54:55.

• Nagadasaka (437 BCE to 414 BCE) 55:27:

  • One of the last rulers of the Haryanka Dynasty; proved incompetent, leading to the overthrow of the dynasty and the rise of the Shishunaga Dynasty.

The Shishunaga Dynasty 56:14

• Shishunaga 56:35:

  • Founder of the Shishunaga Dynasty.

  • Shifted the capital from Pataliputra to Vaishali 56:52.

  • Ended the 100-year rivalry between Magadha and Avanti during his reign by defeating Avanti and absorbing it into Magadha 57:20.

• Kalashoka 58:09:

  • Convened the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali in 383 BCE 58:15.

• Decline 58:46:

  • Succeeding rulers such as Nandivardhana and Mahanandin were weak rulers, resulting in the decline of the dynasty and the rise of the Nandas.

The Nanda Dynasty 59:30

• Mahapadma Nanda 01:00:07:

  • Assumed the titles Sarvakshatrantaka (uprooter of all Kshatriyas), Ekachhatra, Ekarat (sole sovereign) and Ugrasena (possessor of a huge army) 01:00:40.

  • Regarded as the First Empire Builder in Indian history 01:01:28.

  • Buddhist texts state he belonged to an unknown lineage, whereas Brahmanical texts describe the Nandas as non-Kshatriyas 01:01:53.

  • Conquered Kalinga and annexed it to Magadha, bringing back an image of a Jina as a trophy of victory 01:02:09.

  • According to the Hathigumpha Inscription, he built an aqueduct in Bhubaneswar (Kalinga) 01:03:38.

  • Succeeded by his eight sons, collectively known as the Navanandas (Nine Nandas) 01:03:17.

• Dhanananda 01:04:26:

  • Maintained a massive standing army including war elephants 01:04:34.

  • Referred to by Greek historians such as Diodorus as Agrammes or Xandrames 01:04:52.

  • Alexander the Great reached the Beas River in north-western India during Dhanananda's reign 01:05:28.

  • Introduced a new measurement standard known as Nandopakramani 01:06:14.

Foreign Invasions: Persian And Greek 01:06:56

Political Condition Of India On The Eve Of Foreign Invasions 01:06:56

• Eastern India: Characterised by political unity under the Nandas, who had absorbed smaller principalities into Magadha 01:07:39.

• North-Western India: Characterised by political disunity, as small principalities such as Gandhara and Kamboja fought continuously among themselves 01:07:09.

• This lack of political unity in the north-west invited foreign invasions from Iran (Persia) and Greece (Macedonia) 01:08:20.

The Persian (Achaemenid) Invasion 01:08:45

• Cyrus 01:10:25:

  • Reached up to the borders of India.

• Darius I (516 BCE) 01:11:11:

  • Captured Punjab and Sindh and incorporated them into the Persian Empire as its 20th Satrapy (province).

  • This region was highly fertile and yielded immense revenue for Darius's empire 01:11:55.

• Xerxes 01:10:38:

  • Another Achaemenid ruler who followed Darius and maintained Persian involvement in the north-west.

Impact Of Indo-Iranian Contact 01:15:09

• Spread Of Kharosthi Script: The Kharosthi script, written from right to left, entered north-western India and was later used in Ashoka's inscriptions in that region 01:15:33.

• Trade And Coinage: Indo-Iranian trade and commerce expanded, leading to the circulation of Iranian coins in north-western India 01:16:19.

• Influence On Mauryan Sculpture: Persian artistic traditions influenced later Mauryan sculpture 01:16:33.

• Linguistic Exchange: Iranian administrative and scribal terms entered Indian usage; for example, the Iranian term Dipi evolved into the Indian word Lipi (script) 01:16:55.

The Greek Invasion Of Alexander (326 BCE) 01:17:34

• Reasons Why Alexander Came To India 01:17:50:

  • Attraction to Indian Wealth: Herodotus, the Father of History, had glorified India's immense wealth, inspiring Alexander to conquer it.

  • Geographical Inquisitiveness: Alexander was deeply curious about geography and believed that the Caspian Sea extended to the east of India 01:18:42.

  • Inspiration from Mythological Stories: Stories of ancient heroic kings and conquests motivated Alexander to emulate their glory 01:19:18.

  • Political Disunity in North-West India: Internal conflicts among north-western rulers made the region vulnerable to conquest 01:19:46.

• Course Of Alexander's Campaign 01:20:06:

  • Starting from Macedonia, Alexander conquered Egypt, Asia Minor and Iran before crossing the Hindu Kush mountain passes into north-western India, defeating local tribes along the way.

  • After crossing the Indus River, he confronted Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila (located between the Indus and Jhelum rivers), who surrendered without fighting 01:20:59.

  • Crossing the Jhelum River, Alexander faced Porus, who ruled the territory between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers 01:22:08.

  • Battle of Hydaspes (326 BCE) 01:22:34:

    • Fought on the banks of the Jhelum River (called Hydaspes by the Greeks).

    • After a fierce and prolonged battle, Alexander was deeply impressed by Porus's bravery and dignity when Porus stated that he expected to be treated as one king treats another 01:23:32.

  • Alexander advanced up to the Beas River, defeating local tribes, where his army refused to march further east 01:23:55.

• Reasons Why Alexander Turned Back 01:25:02:

  • Hot climatic conditions in India exhausted his soldiers 01:25:35.

  • 10 years of continuous fighting had worn down his army 01:25:46.

  • Alexander's army had already faced stiff resistance from Indian soldiers, particularly under Porus 01:26:05.

  • Fear of Nanda War Elephants: Reports of the Nanda dynasty's huge army equipped with war elephants deterred Alexander's troops from advancing further 01:26:34.

Impact Of Alexander's Invasion 01:27:17

• Direct Contact Between Ancient Europe And Ancient India: Brought two ancient civilizations into direct political, cultural and intellectual contact 01:27:48.

• Annexation of Indian Territories: Alexander incorporated north-western Indian territories into his empire 01:28:18.

• Opening of Trade Routes: Opened four distinct land routes between India and the West, stimulating long-distance trade 01:28:47.

• Establishment of Greek Settlements: Established Greek cities in the north-west, notably Alexandria in Kabul and Bucephala on the banks of the Jhelum 01:29:06.

Overthrow Of The Nandas And Rise Of Chandragupta Maurya 01:30:17

• Chanakya's Warning To Dhanananda 01:31:33:

  • Acharya Chanakya, a professor at Taxila, realised that Alexander's advancing armies threatened north-western India.

  • He travelled to Pataliputra to urge Dhanananda, ruler of the powerful Nanda Empire, to defend neighbouring Indian territories against Alexander 01:32:37.

  • Dhanananda insulted Chanakya, dismissed his duty toward neighbouring states and ordered his execution 01:33:32.

  • Dhanananda's minister Amatya Rakshasa intervened on principled grounds, arguing that executing a Brahmana guest in court violated royal dharma 01:34:30.

  • Humiliated, Chanakya untied his shikha (tuft of hair) and vowed not to tie it again until he uprooted Dhanananda from the throne 01:35:12.

• Discovery And Training Of Chandragupta Maurya 01:35:35:

  • While returning from Pataliputra, Chanakya observed a boy playing a game of kings and ministers who consistently acted as the king without changing roles.

  • Recognising his leadership potential, Chanakya took the boy, Chandragupta Maurya, to Taxila and trained him in statecraft and warfare 01:36:05.

• Strategy To Defeat Dhanananda 01:36:48:

  • Plan A: Chanakya initially planned to use Alexander's invasion to overthrow Dhanananda and then place Chandragupta on the throne after Alexander's withdrawal. This plan failed when Alexander's army turned back at the Beas River 01:37:26.

  • Plan B: Chanakya united local chiefs around Taxila under Chandragupta's leadership by promising them shares of Nanda territory, raising a large army 01:37:56.

  • Simultaneously, Chanakya weakened Dhanananda from within by exploiting internal discontent: Dhanananda had forcibly married the daughter of his minister Shakatar against Shakatar's wishes, prompting Shakatar and other oppressed ministers to join Chanakya 01:38:45.

  • Attacked from outside by Chandragupta's forces and undermined by internal rebellion, Dhanananda was defeated, ending the Nanda Dynasty 01:39:57.

• Consolidation Of Mauryan Rule And Role Of Amatya Rakshasa 01:40:21:

  • After Chandragupta became king, Amatya Rakshasa sent vishakanyas (poison maidens) to assassinate him 01:40:34.

  • Foreseeing the plot, Chanakya redirected the vishakanyas toward the greedy local chiefs who had demanded territory after helping only out of self-interest, eliminating both the threat to Chandragupta and the unreliable chiefs 01:41:13.

  • Impressed by Amatya Rakshasa's loyalty and adherence to dharma during Chanakya's earlier visit to Dhanananda's court, Chanakya appointed Amatya Rakshasa as Chief Minister 01:43:06.

  • Chanakya stepped back from active office to write the Arthashastra so that his principles of strategy and diplomacy would guide future kings 01:44:22.

  • Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne around 321 BCE, establishing the Mauryan Empire 01:45:04.

Economy Of The Mahajanapada Period 01:46:19

Towns And Cities 01:48:33

• Growth of Urban Centres: Agricultural expansion, increased population and thriving crafts and trade gave birth to cities in the Gangetic valley, marking the Second Urbanisation 01:48:55.

• Classification of Towns 01:50:12:

  • Nagara or Pura: Fortified towns.

  • Nagaraka: Small towns.

  • Nigama: Market towns.

• Functional Types of Towns 01:51:26:

  • Political and Administrative Centres: Rajagriha, Shravasti and Champa.

  • Trade Centres: Ujjain.

  • Holy Centres: Vaishali.

Villages 01:53:06

• The Pali Buddhist text Vinaya Pitaka describes three types of villages during this period 01:53:18:

  • Typical Villages 01:53:58:

    • Inhabited by people of various castes and communities.

    • Headed by a village headman known as Bhojaka or Gramabhojaka (also referred to as Gramini or Gramika).

  • Suburban Villages 01:55:34:

    • Specialised craft villages supplying goods to nearby towns:

      • Vaddhaki-grama: Carpenters' village.

      • Nalakara-grama: Reed-makers' village.

      • Lonakara-grama: Salt-makers' village.

  • Border Villages 01:57:11:

    • Referred to as Aramika-grama, situated on the boundaries of territories.

    • Inhabitants primarily practised hunting and food gathering due to limited urban connectivity.

• Rural-Urban Linkage and Revenue Collection 01:58:14:

  • Towns supplied iron tools to villages, while villages produced raw materials and agricultural goods for towns.

  • Village agricultural land was divided into plots, with one plot allocated to each family for cultivation 01:59:05.

  • Farmers paid one-sixth (1/6) of the produce as tax 01:59:59.

  • Taxes were collected directly by royal agents called Balisadhakas, meaning there were no intermediaries in many places 02:00:13.

Trade, Transportation And Currency 02:01:06

• Location of Towns: Towns were strategically located along river banks or major trade routes 02:01:23.

• Major Trans-Regional Land Routes 02:01:55:

  • Uttarapatha: Stretched from the Gangetic plain to Tamralipti (and north-western regions).

  • Dakshinapatha: Connected Pataliputra to Pratishthana in the Deccan.

• Maritime and Overland External Routes 02:03:11:

  • Eastern maritime routes connected Bengal to Myanmar.

  • Western routes linked Taxila to Afghanistan, Mesopotamia and Iran.

  • Trade routes were kept safe and secure through state protection.

• Currency and Wage Labour 02:05:26:

  • Panini, in his Ashtadhyayi, mentions the use of currency, wages (Vetana) and wage earners (Vaitanika).

  • Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper came into circulation, referred to as Nishka and Shatamana 02:06:20.

Taxation And Commercial Classes 02:07:07

• Social Distribution of Tax Burden 02:07:31:

  • Brahmanas and Kshatriyas were exempted from paying taxes.

  • The tax burden fell primarily on the Vaishyas (often prosperous householders called Grihapatis).

• Forms of Taxes and Labour 02:08:34:

  • Bali: Earlier a voluntary offering, it now became a compulsory tax fixed at one-sixth (1/6) of the agricultural produce, collected by Balisadhakas.

  • Forced Labour: Peasants were subjected to forced labour, while artisans were obliged to work one day each month for the king without payment 02:09:04.

  • Taxes were collected both in kind and in cash 02:10:34.

• Revenue Officials 02:09:52:

  • Kammikas: Customs officials.

  • Shaulkika or Shulkadhyaksha: Toll officials who collected tolls.

• Land Grants and Merchants 02:10:46:

  • Brahmadeya Land: Land granted to Brahmanas; recipients held only revenue collection rights and did not possess administrative rights to govern or make laws for the land.

  • Setthis: Wealthy, high-level merchants who played a major role in urban commerce 02:12:11.

Agriculture 02:12:39

• Crops and Technology:

  • Paddy cultivation expanded significantly, with rice serving as the staple crop.

  • Use of the iron ploughshare increased agricultural yields.

  • Other cultivated crops included barley, cotton, pulses, millets and sugarcane 02:13:33.

• Agrarian Labour:

  • Rich landlords known as Grihapatis employed Dasas (slaves) and Karmakaras (hired labourers) to cultivate their fields 02:14:07.

Guild System 02:14:53

• Artisans and merchants organised themselves into guilds, representing associations of people practising the same craft or trade.

• Effects of Guilds:

  • Promoted occupational specialisation.

  • Strengthened collective bargaining and negotiating power.

  • Assigned fixed, specified locations within cities for specific crafts; merchant streets were known as Vessas 02:16:21.

Administration And Law 02:17:01

Administrative Officials 02:17:18

• The king was assisted by higher officials known as Amatyas and Mahamatras, who held roles such as ministers, commanders, judges and chief accountants.

• These high officials were assisted in daily administration by subordinate officials called Ayuktas 02:18:31.

Legal And Judicial System 02:18:48

• Earlier tribal laws were replaced by a formal legal and judicial system governed by the Dharmashastras 02:19:13.

• Influence of Social Hierarchy on Justice 02:20:12:

  • Punishments were determined by the varna (caste) status of the offender and the victim.

  • If a lower-caste person (such as a Shudra) committed a crime against an upper-caste person, strict punishment was imposed.

  • If an upper-caste person committed an offence against a lower-caste person, lenient punishment was applied, or the offender was excused altogether.

Society 02:21:13

Social Stratification And Untouchables 02:21:19

• Alongside the four established varnas (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras), a fifth social category emerged: the Untouchables.

• Shudras served as slaves, artisans and agricultural labourers 02:21:57.

• Untouchables 02:22:19:

  • Ranked below the Shudras in the social hierarchy.

  • Forced to live on the fringes of human settlements.

  • Marginalised and restricted to menial jobs.

  • Spoke their own languages, which were distinct from the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by the upper varnas 02:23:14.

Family And Kinship 02:23:47

• Kinship ties (blood relations) were central to social organisation.

• Families were extended patrilineal families 02:24:24.

• Nyakas (or Natakas): Relatives on both the father's and mother's sides 02:24:43.

• Nati and Nati-kulani: Terms denoting the extended kin group 02:25:05.

Position Of Women 02:25:32

• Because society was patriarchal, the status of women was low and inferior and their independent decisions were not recognised.

• Preference for Sons over Daughters 02:26:16:

  • Only a son could perform funeral rites for parents.

  • A son ensured the continuation of the family lineage.

Military Strength 02:27:09

• States maintained massive armies; for instance, the Nanda army is recorded as consisting of 60,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 6,000 war elephants.

Literary Sources Of The Period 02:27:25

Brahmanical Texts 02:28:36

• Vedangas (Limbs of the Vedas) 02:28:55:

  • Necessary for understanding and preserving the Vedas; written in prose or sutra style for easy memorisation.

  • There are six Vedangas:

    • Shiksha: Phonetics.

    • Kalpa: Rituals.

    • Vyakarana: Grammar.

    • Nirukta: Etymology.

    • Chhanda: Metrics (prosody).

    • Jyotisha: Astronomy (not astrology), regarded as the Eyes of the Vedas 02:31:08.

• Smriti Literature 02:31:41:

  • Literature handed down by human tradition across generations, regarded as of human origin (unlike Shruti).

• Kalpasutras 02:32:39:

  • Divided into three main classes:

    • Shrautasutra: Deals with major public rituals of sacrifices. Includes the Sulvasutra, the oldest book on geometry, which prescribed measurements for sacrificial altars 02:32:55.

    • Grihasutra: Deals with domestic ceremonies (birth, marriage, funerals) 02:33:46.

    • Dharmasutra: Deals with legal aspects, social duties and law 02:34:18.

• Upavedas 02:34:47:

  • Four auxiliary Vedic texts associated with practical sciences and arts:

    • Ayurveda: Medicine.

    • Shilpaveda: Sculpture and architecture.

    • Gandharvaveda: Music (associated with the Samaveda).

    • Dhanurveda: Warfare and archery.

• Panini's Ashtadhyayi 02:36:15:

  • A landmark treatise on Sanskrit grammar that deeply influenced later grammarians such as Katyayana and Patanjali.

Buddhist Literature 02:36:45

• Tripitaka (Three Baskets) 02:36:57:

  • Sutta Pitaka: Contains the speeches and teachings of Gautama Buddha; compiled by Ananda at the First Buddhist Council held at Rajagriha in 483 BCE 02:37:40 02:38:39.

  • Vinaya Pitaka: Contains the monastic code of conduct governing the behaviour of monks and nuns after joining the Sangha; compiled by Upali at the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha in 483 BCE 02:37:57 02:39:10.

  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Contains philosophical doctrines and sayings; compiled by Moggaliputta Tissa at the Third Buddhist Council held at Pataliputra in 250 BCE 02:38:23 02:39:23.

• Jatakas 02:37:23:

  • Stories relating to the previous births and life of Gautama Buddha.

Jaina Literature 02:40:05

• Written primarily in Prakrit.

• Purvas: The earliest Jaina literature consisted of a set of 14 books called Purvas, which are now lost 02:40:20.

• Important surviving Jaina texts include the Bhagavati Sutra and Parishishtaparvan 02:41:06.

Discussion Of Previous Year Questions 02:42:04

Question 1: Chroniclers And Epics In Ancient India (2016) 02:42:04

• Question: With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorising of chronicles, dynastic histories and epic tales was the profession of whom?

• Answer: Magadhas (alongside Sutas) 02:42:17 02:43:29.

• Related Terms Explained 02:42:28:

  • Agrahara: A perpetual, hereditary and tax-free land grant given to Brahmanas (the process of granting was called Brahmadeya). Agraharikas were the residents of such Brahmana settlements.

  • Shramana: Refers to non-Brahmanical ascetic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism.

  • Parivrajaka: A Sanskrit term meaning one who roams around, a renunciant or wanderer.

Question 2: Location Of Taxila (2006) 02:43:43

• Question: Between which two rivers was the ancient town of Taxila located?

• Answer: Between the Indus and Jhelum rivers (where King Ambhi ruled during Alexander's invasion) 02:43:48.

Question 3: Contemporaries In Ancient India (2005) 02:44:04

• Question: Who among the following was not a contemporary of the other three (Bimbisara, Gautama Buddha, Prasenajit and Milinda)?

• Answer: Milinda (Menander) 02:44:20.

  • Bimbisara, Gautama Buddha and Prasenajit (ruler of Kosala) were contemporaries in the 6th century BCE, whereas Milinda belonged to the later Indo-Greek period in the post-Mauryan era.

Question 4: Dynasty Ruling North India During Alexander's Invasion 02:44:36

• Question: Which dynasty was ruling over North India at the time of Alexander's invasion?

• Answer: The Nanda Dynasty (under Dhanananda) 02:44:41.

Question 5: Most Powerful State In The 6th Century BCE 02:44:46

• Question: Which was initially the most powerful city-state in the 6th century BCE before the rise of Magadha?

• Answer: Kashi (later absorbed by Kosala and Magadha) 02:44:52.

Question 6: Map Identification Of Mahajanapadas (1997) 02:45:01

• Question: Identify the four Mahajanapadas marked A, B, C and D on the map of ancient India.

• Answer: Matsya (A), Avanti (B), Vatsa (C) and Anga (D) 02:45:48.