Indus Valley Civilization
Historical Timeline And Context 02:48
Recap Of Prehistoric Periods 03:05
Stone Age 03:10
Divided into three parts: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic.
Palaeolithic Age 03:25
Spanned from approximately 5,00,000 BC to 10,000 BC.
Corresponded to the Pleistocene geological period.
Mesolithic Age 03:32
Spanned from approximately 10,000 BC to 4,000 BC.
Served as a transition phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods, marking the beginning of the Holocene period.
Characterised by climatic changes: ice melted, forming streams and rivers, which altered flora and fauna and brought fast-running animals.
Human tools evolved to suit these changes, notably with the use of microliths.
Neolithic Age (Neolithic Revolution) 03:40
Began around 9,000 BC globally and continued until 1,000 BC.
In the Indian subcontinent, the earliest Neolithic site is Mehrgarh, dated to around 7,000 BC, often referred to as the Bread Basket of Balochistan.
Other notable Indian Neolithic sites include Gufkral, Burzahom, Chirand and southern Indian sites like Kupgal, Piklihal and Maski.
Represented a major shift to settled life, with people living in circular and rectangular houses built of mud bricks.
Key developments included agriculture, plant and animal domestication, fishing, the invention of the potter's wheel and pottery used for storing grains.
Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age) 06:21
Ran largely parallel to the later Neolithic period, from approximately 4,000 BC to 700 BC.
Combined the use of copper (chalco) and stone (lithic) tools, though society remained rural with only gradual upgrades over Neolithic life.
Key Chalcolithic cultures include:
Ahar-Banas Culture: Roughly 2,400 BC to 2,000 BC.
Kayatha Culture: Roughly 2,000 BC to 1,800 BC.
Malwa Culture: Roughly 1,800 BC (or 1,700 BC) to 1,400 BC.
Jorwe Culture: Roughly 1,400 BC to 700 BC.
Emergence Of The Bronze Age (Indus Valley Civilization) 08:27
Followed the Chalcolithic phase as the Bronze Age, spanning approximately 3,300 BC to 1,700 BC (with some late sites extending to 1,400 BC or 1,200 BC).
Overlapping Timelines Across Different Regions 09:05
The Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Bronze Age phases overlapped chronologically across different geographic locations of the Indian subcontinent.
While rural Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities existed in various parts of India, an advanced urban civilisation emerged and eventually declined around the Indus River and its valley.
Production Of Bronze 12:36
People of the Indus Valley obtained copper locally or from neighbouring regions and imported tin from places such as Afghanistan.
By alloying copper and tin, they produced bronze, earning this era the name Bronze Age (also known as the Harappan Civilization).
Major Contemporary River Valley Civilizations 13:57
- Major ancient civilisations developed along major rivers because rivers provided essential water for drinking, agriculture and daily sustenance.
| Civilization | Associated River System |
|---|---|
| Egyptian Civilization | River Nile |
| Mesopotamian Civilization | Rivers Tigris and Euphrates |
| Indus Valley Civilization | River Indus |
| Chinese Civilization | River Hwang Ho (Yellow River) |
Nomenclature, Extent And Geographical Distribution 16:04
Naming And Early References 16:14
John Marshall coined the name Indus Valley Civilization.
Because Harappa was the first site to be excavated, the civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilization.
The Rigveda, a collection of prayers, mentions a term Hariyupiya, which corresponds to Harappa.
The Rigveda also mentions the River Saraswati, which historians identify with the ancient Ghaggar-Hakra river system that has since dried up.
Over 1,500 sites have been discovered, making it one of the most extensive civilisations of the ancient world.
Geographical Extent (Cardinal Boundaries) 19:02
Northernmost Site: Manda (also referred to as Mandu in speech), situated on the River Chenab.
Southernmost Site: Daimabad, situated on the River Pravara.
Easternmost Site: Alamgirpur, situated on the River Hindon.
Westernmost Site: Sutkagendor, situated on the River Dashk.
Notable Sites And Settlement Patterns 20:34
Largest Site: Rakhigarhi (located in Haryana).
Oldest Site: Bhirrana.
Site Known For Burials: Farmana (located in Haryana).
Outlying Trading Outpost: Ganweriwala, located far out in the Cholistan Desert of Pakistan, likely serving as a station along trade routes beyond the core Indus region.
High-Density Zones 23:10
The maximum concentration (density) of Indus Valley sites is found along the central Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
The largest number of Indus Valley sites in a single modern region is found in Haryana (including sites such as Banawali and Rakhigarhi).
Relationship With Rivers And Exceptions 24:33
Most Indus Valley sites were situated directly along riverbanks:
Harappa was located on the River Ravi.
Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, Kot Diji and Allahdino were located on the River Indus.
Two Notable Exceptions (Sites Not Located On Active Rivers) 25:54
Dholavira: Located in the Rann of Kutch without an adjacent perennial river. People settled here because the area was rich in minerals such as limestone and lead.
Surkotada: Currently has no river, though in ancient times a small stream approximately 750 metres wide flowed nearby.
Phases Of The Harappan Civilization 01:19:09
The Harappan Civilization is divided into three chronological phases, representing its rise, urban peak and rural decline:
Early Harappan Phase (c. 3,300 BC to 2,600 BC) 01:19:31
- Marked the formative period during which urban traits began developing out of earlier agricultural communities.
Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2,600 BC to 1,900 BC) 01:19:45
Represented the peak of urban prosperity, known as the First Urbanization in India.
All major planned cities, monumental structures, standardised weights and extensive trade networks flourished during this phase.
Late Harappan Phase (c. 1,900 BC to 1,700 BC, extending to c. 1,400–1,300 BC in some areas) 01:19:52
- Marked the decline of urban life and the gradual transition back into rural, village-based communities resembling Chalcolithic societies.
Major Features Of The Indus Valley Civilization 28:33
Town Planning And Architecture 29:15
Division Of Cities 29:42
Cities were typically divided into two distinct parts:
Upper Town (Citadel) 29:47
Built on an uplifted platform on the western side of the city.
Surrounded by four-sided thick fortification walls.
Contained administrative and public buildings, collectively referred to as the Acropolis, where rulers and elites likely resided.
Examples of structures found in Citadels across various sites include the Great Bath, Great Granaries and multi-pillared assembly halls.
Lower Town 30:34
Built at a lower elevation on the eastern side of the city.
Inhabited by the common people.
Featured a central market area.
Street Layout And Grid System 33:23
Cities were laid out systematically following a grid system.
Streets and lanes intersected at right angles (90 degrees), dividing the residential area into rectangular blocks.
Main streets were wide (up to around 9 metres in major cities like Mohenjo-daro) and street lamps were part of urban infrastructure.
Drainage System 36:22
Featured an advanced underground drainage system.
Small drains from individual houses connected to larger street drains.
Drains were covered with stone slabs that could be easily lifted for regular cleaning and maintenance, reflecting high standards of public hygiene.
House Construction And Domestic Features 37:04
Building Materials: Houses were constructed using burnt bricks of a uniform shape and ratio (standardised proportions such as 1:2:4, e.g., 7 by 14 by 28 cm), bound together with mortar and gypsum.
Size And Storeys: Houses varied in size, including single-room houses (or barracks) as well as larger houses with staircases, indicating the presence of double-storey buildings.
Privacy: Doors and windows generally opened onto side lanes rather than the main street, ensuring domestic privacy from passers-by.
Water And Sanitation:
Most houses had private wells for water supply.
Houses contained ventilated, tiled bathrooms with slanted floors to allow wastewater to drain smoothly into street drains.
Absence Of Temples: No temples or monumental religious shrines have been found at any Indus Valley site, unlike contemporary Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilisations.
Seals And Sealings 44:15
Purpose And Function Of Seals 44:26
Trade And Security (Sealing) 44:54
Merchants packed goods into sacks, tied the opening with a rope, applied wet clay over the knot and pressed their engraved seal onto it.
This clay impression, called a sealing, acted as a temporary tamper-evident mark; if the sealing arrived broken, the recipient knew the goods had been tampered with.
Identification Markers 49:35
- Seals functioned like identity badges or amulets; several seals have perforated holes, indicating they were strung on cords and worn around the neck as lockets.
Tokens In Buying And Selling 50:33
- Used as commercial tokens to authenticate transactions between traders.
Clan Or Community Emblems 51:05
Because the Harappan script has not been deciphered and many people may not have been literate, animal motifs carved on seals likely conveyed identity or clan affiliation to those who could not read.
Around 10 distinct animal motifs appear frequently on seals, suggesting at least 10 major clans or communities, with the unicorn (humpless bull) representing the largest or most prominent group.
Physical Characteristics And Materials 53:49
Shapes: Most seals were square, though rectangular, triangular and circular seals have also been found.
Standard Structure: Typical seals feature a line of pictographic writing at the top (likely the owner's name or title), a central animal motif and a feeding trough or stand placed in front of the animal.
Materials Used:
Steatite (a very soft stone found in riverbeds) was the most commonly used material.
Other materials included agate, chert, carnelian, copper, calcite (calcium), terracotta, silver, gold and ivory.
Over 2,000 seals have been recovered in total.
Animals Depicted On Seals 57:44
Animals Present: Humpless bull (unicorn) (the most common motif, accounting for 46% of seals at Harappa and over 60% at Mohenjo-daro), rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, buffalo, goat, bison, hare, deer and crocodile.
Animal Absent: There is no depiction of the cow on Indus Valley seals or terracotta art.
Notable Specific Seals 01:02:08
Humpless Bull Seal: The most frequently occurring seal across Indus sites.
Earth Mother Goddess Seal: Depicts a nude woman shown upside down with legs apart and a plant emerging from her womb (embryo), representing fertility and serving as a prototype of Shakambhari Devi.
Swastika Seal: Features the swastika symbol, likely used on auspicious or religious occasions.
Pashupati Seal (found at Mohenjo-daro) 01:03:13:
Depicts a horned human figure seated cross-legged in a yogic posture, identified as Proto-Shiva (Proto-Rudra).
Surrounded by specific animals: two deer beneath the seat; a rhinoceros and a buffalo on the right side; an elephant and a tiger on the left side.
Cylindrical Seal (found at Kalibangan) 01:04:31:
- Of Mesopotamian origin, depicting a woman standing between two men holding swords over her head, interpreted as a scene of human sacrifice.
Circular Persian Gulf Seals (found at Lothal and Daimabad) 01:05:27:
- Button-shaped circular seals indicating maritime trade contacts with the Persian Gulf region.
Economy: Domestication, Agriculture, Trade And Craft 01:59:56
Domestication Of Animals 02:00:16
Domesticated animals included oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, humped bulls, dogs, cats, camels and elephants.
Status Of The Horse 02:01:54:
- While isolated skeletal remains of horses have been reported from sites like Kalibangan, Banawali and Surkotada, the Indus Valley Civilization was not a horse-centric society. Horses were not central to their transport or warfare.
Agriculture And Diet 02:04:50
Main Crops: Wheat and barley were the primary staple crops. Pulses were also cultivated extensively.
Cotton: The Harappans were the earliest people to produce cotton, which the Greeks later called Sindon (derived from Sindh).
Rice: Evidence of rice cultivation has been recovered from Lothal.
Farming Practices:
Ploughed fields and mixed cropping (growing two crops simultaneously in the same field) were practised, evidenced at Kalibangan.
Irrigation canals were constructed to support agriculture.
Diet: People consumed both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food, with fish, milk and curd forming common dietary staples.
Trade And Commerce 01:08:44
Exports: Stones, metals, food grains, cotton textiles and seashells.
Imports: Gold, silver and tin.
Foreign Trade:
Extensive trade was conducted with Mesopotamia and Egypt, proven by the discovery of Mesopotamian and Egyptian seals in Indus sites and Harappan seals in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamian texts refer to the Indus region as Meluhha.
Technology, Craft And Script 02:02:48
Metallurgy: Skilled in bronze casting using the lost-wax technique (cire perdue), as well as working with gold, silver, copper and lead.
Textiles And Boat-Making: Presence of spindle whorls confirms spinning and weaving of cotton cloth; boat-making supported riverine and maritime trade.
Pottery: Characterised by Red and Black Pottery (red-slipped ware painted with black geometric and naturalistic designs).
Bead-Making And Jewellery: Crafted intricate beads (from steatite, carnelian, agate), necklaces, bracelets, bangles, brooches and earrings using gold, silver and semi-precious stones; cosmetics and patterned garments were also used.
Terracotta Crafts: Produced terracotta figurines (bulls, buffaloes, monkeys, dogs), bangles, dice and children's toys such as miniature clay carts.
Hoards: Valuable metal objects and jewellery were often buried in hoards underground for safekeeping against theft or insecurity.
Harappan Script 02:06:45:
The script is pictographic (consisting of symbols and pictures) and remains undeciphered.
Written in the Boustrophedon style, written from right to left on the first line and then left to right on the next line, alternating back and forth.
Detailed Study Of Major Indus Valley Sites 01:10:43
Harappa 01:10:54
Location And Excavation: Situated on the banks of the River Ravi in the Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan); excavated in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni.
Key Archaeological Findings:
Six Granaries: Arranged in two rows very close to the River Ravi inside the Citadel, storing large quantities of wheat grains.
Single-Room Barracks: Located near the granaries, likely housing workers and labourers.
Religious And Sculptural Artefacts:
Earth Mother Goddess seal.
Stone phallus (Lingam) symbols.
Nude male torso carved out of red sandstone.
No temples found.
Terracotta Dice: Used for board games.
Burial Practices:
Wooden coffins have been discovered.
Bodies were buried in an extended position with the head oriented towards the north.
Two distinct cemeteries were identified: Cemetery R-37 (containing around 200 burials from the Mature phase) and Cemetery H (belonging to the Post-Harappan (Late Harappan) phase).
Mohenjo-daro 01:22:40
Location And Excavation: Situated on the banks of the River Indus in Sindh (Pakistan); excavated in 1922 by R. D. Banerji. Literally translates to "Mound of the Dead" due to numerous human skeletons uncovered there.
Key Archaeological Findings:
Great Bath:
A large rectangular tank located in the Citadel, featuring flights of steps on the north and south sides and surrounded by changing rooms and a large well used to fill the tank.
Constructed with gypsum mortar for water-tightening and lined with bitumen for waterproofing.
Likely used for ritual bathing.
Great Granary: The largest building at Mohenjo-daro, used for storing surplus grain.
Multi-Pillared Assembly Hall: A large hall supported by multiple pillars in the Citadel.
Bronze Dancing Girl:
A 10.8 cm tall bronze figurine created using the lost-wax technique, named by John Marshall (currently housed in the National Museum, New Delhi).
Depicts a nude female figure with elongated eyes and arms, wearing a necklace and bangles covering her entire left arm, standing with her right hand on her hip and left hand resting on her thigh (feet are broken off).
Steatite Bearded Priest-King:
A 17.5 cm tall steatite bust (currently in Pakistan, transferred following the 1972 Simla Agreement).
Depicts a man with a neatly trimmed beard, elongated half-closed eyes, a fillet (crown band) around his head, an armband and a trefoil-patterned shawl draped over his left shoulder, suggesting royal or priestly authority.
Seals: Yielded the Pashupati Seal and numerous humpless bull seals.
Three Types Of Burials:
Complete Burial: Burying the entire body intact.
Fractional Burial: Exposing the body to birds and animals first, then burying the remaining bones.
Post-Cremation Burial (Urn or Pot Burial): Cremating the body and burying the ashes inside an earthen pot or urn.
Lothal 01:35:46
Location And Excavation: Situated on the River Bhogava near the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat; excavated by S. R. Rao. Also referred to as a "Mound of the Dead" and known as the Manchester of the Indus Valley Civilization due to its thriving cotton trade and industrial activity.
Unique Town Planning:
- Unlike other major Indus cities, the Citadel at Lothal was not fortified separately and was not separated from the Lower Town; both formed a single integrated complex.
Key Archaeological Findings:
Artificial Brick Dockyard:
The only Indus site with an artificial dockyard, shaped like a trapezium.
Connected to the River Bhogava and equipped with an inlet channel, a sluice gate to retain water and a spillway to drain excess water. (Currently 16–19 km inland due to changes in sea level and coastline).
Earliest Evidence Of Rice Cultivation: Recovered rice husks and grains.
Industrial And Trade Finds:
Bead-making factory and coppersmith workshops with five furnaces and paved sinks.
Circular Persian Gulf seal confirming overseas trade.
Cultural And Burial Finds:
Terracotta or stone chessboard (evidence of board games).
Fire altars.
Double burials (two skeletons buried together in a single grave).
Dholavira 01:44:46
Location And Excavation: Located on Khadir Island in the Rann of Kutch (Gujarat), situated between two seasonal streams, Manhar and Mansar. Discovered by J. P. Joshi and excavated by R. S. Bisht. Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Unique Town Planning:
Divided into three distinct parts instead of the usual two: Upper Town (Citadel), Middle Town and Lower Town.
Featured a Bailey (an annexed fortified area adjacent to the Citadel where workers serving the Citadel lived).
Key Archaeological Findings:
Sophisticated Water Management System:
Lacking perennial rivers, residents built 16 interconnected reservoirs and tanks around the city to harvest rainwater and divert stream water.
The storage capacity was large enough to sustain the population for up to one year without rainfall.
Fallen Signboard Inscription:
- A large wooden signboard inlaid with 10 large pictographic characters made of white gypsum; the wood decayed over time, leaving the gypsum letters intact on the ground.
Architectural And Seal Finds:
Polished stone pillars and two unique stone pillars inside the Citadel (not found at any other Harappan site), demonstrating advanced civil engineering.
Rectangular steatite seals without animal motifs (bearing only script).
Kalibangan 01:54:11
Location And Excavation: Situated on the banks of the River Ghaggar in Rajasthan; excavated by B. B. Lal and A. Ghosh. Literally means "Black Bangles".
Unique Town Planning:
Both the Citadel and the Lower Town were fortified with walls.
Houses were constructed predominantly using mud bricks rather than burnt bricks, suggesting continuity into rural traditions resembling those of the Chalcolithic during the Late Harappan transition.
Key Archaeological Findings:
Earliest Ploughed Field: Preserved furrow marks arranged in a grid pattern showing mixed cropping (two crops grown simultaneously), although no actual plough tool was found at the site (terracotta models of ploughs were found at Banawali).
Fire Altars: Located on raised mud-brick platforms in the southern part of the Citadel, containing ash and suggesting ritual sacrifices.
Cylindrical Mesopotamian Seal: Depicting a human sacrifice scene.
Private Wells: Nearly every house had its own well.
Other Harappan Sites 02:19:30
Chanhudaro (Sindh, on River Indus): Known as a major craft and bead-making centre; notably the only Indus city without a Citadel.
Banawali (Haryana, on River Rangoi (Ghaggar)): Yielded terracotta models of a plough and high-quality barley.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana, on River Ghaggar): The largest Indus Valley site.
Ropar (Punjab, on River Sutlej): Evidence of dogs buried alongside humans in graves.
Surkotada (Gujarat): Reported skeletal remains of horses and pot burials.
Rangpur (Gujarat, on River Madar): Yielded rice husks and Late Harappan remains.
Kot Diji (Sindh, on River Indus): Pre-Harappan and Early Harappan fortified settlement.
Amri (Sindh, on River Indus): Pre-Harappan settlement with evidence of rhinoceros remains.
Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, on River Hindon): Easternmost site showing Late Harappan traits.
Sutkagendor (Balochistan, on River Dashk): Westernmost coastal trading outpost.
Decline Of The Indus Valley Civilization 02:10:20
Proposed Causes Of Decline 02:10:49
Sudden Natural Catastrophes: Recurring floods (especially along the Indus) and earthquakes caused abrupt destruction at certain sites.
Climatic Change And River Shifts: Increasing aridity, shifting river courses and the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra (Saraswati) river system disrupted agriculture and settlements.
Decline In Soil Fertility: Over-cultivation, deforestation and salinisation reduced agricultural yields.
Decline In Foreign Trade: The collapse of trade links with Mesopotamia weakened the urban economy.
Aryan Invasion or Migration Theory: According to this theory, incoming Indo-Aryans, who possessed horses and horse-drawn chariots giving them superior mobility, clashed with and defeated the local Harappan populations, settling in the Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers) region.
Characteristics Of The Post-Urban (Late Harappan) Phase 02:12:24
After 1,900 BC, the uniform urban features, such as grid planning, covered drainage, standardised weights and script, gradually disappeared.
De-Urbanisation And Ruralisation: Cities shrank into villages and people reverted to Chalcolithic-style rural lifestyles focused on subsistence agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing.
Cultural Shifts And Insecurity:
Appearance of new, simpler pottery styles indicates the gradual arrival and percolation of new population groups into the Indus basin.
Signs of social insecurity are evident from hoards of jewellery and beads buried underground at multiple sites.
Analysis Of Previous Year UPSC Questions 58:43
Animals On Seals (2001) 58:47: Identified that the cow was not represented on Harappan seals and terracotta art, unlike the elephant, rhinoceros and tiger.
Identification Of Non-Harappan Sites (2019) 59:18: Distinguished Sohgaura (located in Gorakhpur on the River Rapti, known for Chalcolithic remains and a Mauryan-era Ashokan copper-plate inscription recording village donations to a Buddhist monastery) from true Harappan sites like Chanhudaro, Kot Diji and Desalpur (a well-planned Harappan settlement in Gujarat).
Water Harvesting System (2021) 02:16:04: Identified Dholavira as the ancient town famous for its elaborate water harvesting and reservoir management system.
Religious And Military Characteristics (2013) 02:16:25: Confirmed that Indus people worshipped both male and female deities (Pashupati and Earth Mother Goddess), whereas they did not possess temples or palaces and did not use horse-drawn chariots in warfare.
Secular Nature And Cotton Textiles (2011) 02:17:13: Confirmed that the civilisation was predominantly secular (religious elements were present but did not dominate public architecture) and that cotton was used for manufacturing textiles.
Site-Specific Archaeological Finds (2002 & 1998) 02:18:08: Matched Lothal with the dockyard, Kalibangan with the ploughed field, Banawali with the terracotta replica of a plough and Dholavira with the 10-character inscription.